Exp Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Exp - Essay Example Using gloves during the collection of the diphenylmethanol, 30g of crushed ice was placed in a 250mL beaker, and 3mL of concentrated HCL was then carefully added to the frozen water. The reaction mixture was then slowly poured into the acid in the fumehood very carefully so as to avoid foaming over. The solid product was collected by suction filtration, and the crystals were washed twice with 15mL of ice-cold water. The crystals were dried thoroughly to avoid recrystallisation due to hexane being immiscible with water. Once dried, the crude product was weighed, and a crude yield was calculated. 0.1 of the crude product was then placed aside for later TLC analysis. During the third stage, the crude product was recrystalised from hexane. Care was taken not to use too much solvent, and because hexane is flammable and has a low boiling point, the hot plate settings were kept below maximum in order to minimise the risk of fire. The purified diphenylmethanol was then collected, and its mass was determined once dry. The percentage recovery of the recrystallisation and the overall yield of the reaction were both calcuated. 0.1g of the recrystallised product was kept aside for later TLC analysis. The melting point of the recrystallised material was now able to be determined at some point, or else during the next stage. For the TLC analysis, solutions were prepared of benzophenone, crude diphenylmethanol, and recrystallised diphenylmethanol, by dissolving 0.1g of solid in 1 ml of dichloromethane. It was recommended to use vials instead of test tubes for this purpose. The eluant for developing the TLC was 1 mL of ethyl acetate dissolved in 5 mL of ligroin, and 12mL of this eluant was required. The TLC was spotted with the three solutions and the plate developed. The spots were then circled under the UV lamp, and the Rf values were

Philosophy - Free

Philosophy Free Will vs Determinism Essay The dialogue between philosophers over the existence of free will versus the inevitability of determinism is a debate that will always exist. The discussion centers around the true freedom of humans to think and act according to their own judgment versus the concept that humans are intrinsically bound by the physical laws of the universe. Before I enter this chicken and the egg debate I need to quantify my terms: Free will is defined by the great philosopher, St. Thomas Aquinas as â€Å"vis electiva† or free choice. It is the ability of man to contemplate and judge the effects of the actions he is about to take. †¦But man acts from judgment, because by his apprehensive power he judges that something should be avoided or sought. But because this judgment, in the case of some particular act, is not from a natural instinct but from some act of comparison in the reason, therefore he acts from free judgment and retains the power of being inclined to various things. † (Aquinas. Suma Theologica) Determinism is a complex notion but is best described by David Hume as the notion that something cannot come from nothing and that all actions have causes preceding them. I conceive that nothing taketh beginning from itself, but from the action of some other immediate agent without itself. And that therefore, when first a man hath an appetite or will to something, to which immediately before he had no appetite nor will, the cause of his will, is not the will itself, but something else not in his own disposing. So that whereas it is out of controversy, that of voluntary actions the will is the necessary cause, and by this which is said, the will is also caused by other things whereof it disposeth not, it followeth, that voluntary actions have all of them necessary causes, and therefore are necessitated. (Hume. Liberty and Nessessity. ) Philosophy and world religion alike were born of the same origins. Each of the two ancient disciplines arose from the quest for the answers to life’s ominous questions. These human questions, archetypical to people of all geographic locations; where did we come from; why are we here; where do we go when we die; unite us as a race. It is no coincidence that each religion and theology from all four corners of the earth tackles these black holes of human logic. Each religion carves their own individual explanations of these unanswerable questions into their core belief systems, each one centrally different than others. However, they all share one common thought; each shares a belief in an afterlife determined by the choices made in life. Free will is the common denominator in all world religions, because all share the essential concept of morality. The widespread acceptance of the concept of morality implies that there is a choice to be had at each and every juncture or life. The choice comes from recognition of good and evil. For good and evil to exist, then there has to be the ability to decipher between the two and also decide to accept one over the other. The existence of morality alone proves that free will exists, because without the freedom to choose right or wrong in any given situation there would be no qualitative measure of the â€Å"rightness† or â€Å"wrongness† of ones actions. David Hume comments on the origin of morality and its place in our everyday decision making processes, â€Å"Only when you turn your reflexion into your own breast, and find a sentiment of disapprobation† (Hume.  Treatise of Human Nature). In other words, there are no outside stimuli that can decipher good from evil; the line can only be drawn by internal thought. Hume was a naturalist in that his vision of the world and therefore stance of philosophy was based directly through the experiences of the senses. His stance on many issues directly originated from his ability to experience it with the five senses, and on the subject of morality he takes exception. Even he recognizes the existence of morality in everyday life, even though it cannot be explained through the lens of the senses. It would seem that morality’s acceptance must therefore prove that free will exists, but there is one essential school of thought yet to weigh on this topic; science. Science was the latest bloomer of the three major disciplines of existential explanation and in the post modern era is becoming more and more popular. As the world becomes further secularized and the reaches of scientific logic continue to exceed their grasp, many of the world’s intellectuals identify â€Å"truth† on a scientific scale. Science does not support the theory of morality, because it can’t be proven to exist. The notion of â€Å"free-will†, something which world religion and philosophies alike recognize as a fundamental part of our human anatomy, is called into question in a few simple and logical ways. Science supports the theory of determinism as the only logical explanation of the unfolding of the actions of our lives. First off, science has recently developed the discipline known to us as physics, in which the laws of the universe have been defined. In the short time in which humans have been graced by the scientific understanding of the laws of the universe, human kind has yet to fully step back and contemplate the magnitude of this discovery. In generations past, humans believed that we were made special with â€Å"free will†, but now we know that like all things in the universe we are subject to the physical laws. This is a huge step forward in rational thinking because it allows us to understand that our previously God given concept of â€Å"free will† was really a result of a lack of understanding of the deterministic laws of the universe. For instance a law as simple and commonly accepted as â€Å"gravity† challenges the idea of free will. Gravitational pull determines that no matter the size of an object, once separate from the surface of the earth will be dragged back down at the same force every time. This is a simple concept that we take for granted, but it works in the free will v. determinism argument. We are ruled by gravity, and therefore all of our lives activities answer to it. We can’t choose to jump off a building and float in the air because we’ll be pulled back to the ground to our imminent deaths. We can’t choose to stay younger and keep our skin tight to our faces because gravity’s long-term effect causes our skin to droop down towards the ground. The choices I just listed may seem farfetched to some, however, if we examine the notion that we have â€Å"free will† in the empirical sense of the word we see that not all of our decisions are controlled by us, and that we fall victim to the tyrannical rule of the physical laws of the universe. We aren’t truly â€Å"free† to create our own actions in life. Albert Einstein offers a particularly apt synopsis, â€Å"Everything is determined, the beginning as well as the end, by forces over which we have no control. It is determined for the insect as well as the star. Human beings, vegetables, or cosmic dust, we all dance to a mysterious tune, intoned in the distance by an invisible piper. (Albert Einstein) The rule of physical law aside, which hinders us from truly being â€Å"free† to choose our own actions in life, is a much more simple scientific argument that dispels the notion of free will. For example: Say a 20 year old man murders another man in cold blood. They have no affiliation, no prior knowledge of who each other is, or reason to dislike each other. Man A walks up to random Man B and shoots and kills him. Was this action of Man A a result of â€Å"free will†? To examine the notion fully you need to look at his action coming from two sources. Either Man A was born with the moral flaw to allow himself to find killing another human acceptable, or that Man A was influenced during the course of his life by interactions and actions of others and came to that conclusion based on his own experience. There is no other explanation for Man A to willingly choose to open fire on Man B and kill him. If we look at the first option, Man A’s natural moral compass was skewed, allowing for him to conceive the notion that killing another is okay. This speaks to the determinant nature of our chemical makeup. Its possible his DNA made a mistake coding somewhere and he developed overtime and understood that killing another is â€Å"wrong† or maybe that his entire sense of â€Å"right from wrong† was skewed inside his mind. This would lead Man A to lead a life normally on the outside, and yet without regard for consequence, open fire on another man and kill him as easily as he could have held a door for him. This is the idea that he naturally had the capacity to kill, and that he could not control it. Eventually one of his animalistic impulses would finally stick and he’d be in the right place at the right time, and that it was only a matter of time until he killed someone. If you don’t subscribe to that theory and believe that he chose to kill Man B that day, try and consider that the results will still be pre-determined. If Man A killed Man B due to his choice, then his own â€Å"free will† and judgment that he finds reprehensible to kill another man can’t be attributed to truly â€Å"free† will of choice. Not every human kills others as part of their natural lifestyle, as they might kiss or mate with another. In fact a very small percentage of people in the world murder other humans, and this begs the question of why? What makes this small percentage of people â€Å"choose† to kill another person? The answer is that if they choose to do it, and they weren’t previously miswired so as said in the prior paragraph, then they must have been influenced by their surroundings. When Man A was six years old he didn’t choose to murder Man B, the events of his life led him to make this decision about whether or not murder was okay. This is yet another reason that he wasn’t truly free to choose; outside influence hinders the ability to choose freely. Whether he was abused, molested, lost a loved one, or just plain fed up with the monotony of everyday life in society, something pushed him over the edge. Something allowed for him to justify his actions; that something is outside influence. This deterministic train of thought explains why people do what they do, but not when. What makes us actually hit the point of no return, or when will the right opportunity hit the right mood leading the right action? (In our example the murder of Man B) The paradox between â€Å"free will† and â€Å"determinism† exists because of the influence of the different schools of thought. If one aligns his personal truth based on religious fervor, then an understanding of â€Å"free will† can exist logically and on the other hand if one bases his logic around science then â€Å"determinism† seems to be the only answer. So where does that leave philosophy, the great bridge between the two polarized schools of thought? It leaves philosophy somewhere in the middle, examining the validity of both sides of the argument, and helping to shed light on the debate over whether or not we truly are free to make a choice or if we are merely floating along the currents of the universe. Personally, I’m lost somewhere in the middle, hoping that the answer to this time-old question will be revealed.

Crazy Drivers Essay -- essays research papers

I do not know how many times I have been driving down the road when someone does something stupid, ranging from pulling out in front of me or tailgating. More and more drivers enter the road every year and it seems as if less and less of them know how to drive. As a teen I often get stereotyped as a bad driver but this is a very unfair judgment. The fact is I have helped prevent accidents the closest I have ever been to being in an accident was the fault of an older gentleman. Still the numbers do not lie teens have the most accidents of any age bracket. Why do teens have the highest accident rate? I believe it is because of inexperience not bad habits. Most teens have only been driving for a very short time, if at all, when they receive their license this leads to accidents. People get ...

An internal locus of control Essay

An internal locus of control is â€Å"the belief that one’s fate is determined by one’s own behavior. † While the external locus of control is â€Å"the belief that what happens is determined not by one’s own actions but by powerful others, luck, and external forces† (Kassin and Wrightsman 1988, 32). What this is saying is that the psychological process of defining the reasoning behind why someone is doing something is that there is either an internal or external locus of control that is determining the factors around the individual. According to the book on page 313 there are times when a judge can decide that a person who has a particular background, occupation or situation would not be a good juror for a trial. This is because their internal locus of control could sway their decision making ability based on what they know and what they have utilized in their profession. In one instance that was described in the book there were two jurors that were kept out of a trial based on their own internal locus of control. One of these jurors was a scientist while the other worked in credit management. Based on the case it was considered that these two potential jurors might not be able to look at the situation completely unbiased and therefore these two jurors were let go from the jury. This is one example on how an internal locus of control can affect someone who is a potential juror (Greene, Heilbrun, Fortune, and Nietzel 2006). A way that the external locus of control can affect someone who is a juror is a bit different. What this means is that someone is being influenced by outside influences which would make them biased in some way to the decision making process. According to the book on page 303 there is a discussion about the interviewing that occurred in the O. J. Simpson trial when looking for jurors. The overwhelming conclusion was that there was a prevalence for African American women to think that some forms of abuse were okay in relationships and this is an external influence to their overall opinions of things. Therefore this influence could influence how the jurors felt about the abuse that O. J. ’s wife had suffered from and therefore they might have a bias (Greene, Heilbrun, Fortune, and Nietzel 2006). Provide an opinion on whether jurors are able to disregard inadmissible evidence using theories discussed in the text, why or why not? According to the book on pages 338-340 there are a number of ways that a juror can look into disregarding evidence that has been determined to be inadmissible. Whether or not this is really possible is a different story. The text describes some different ways that the evidence can be disregarded. These include the reactance theory which is if instructed to disregard certain information the overall decision making ability of the juror could be compromised. Through this theory it is common that someone would use some type of thought suppression to block the material from their thoughts. It is thought that even though this material has been marked as inadmissible that it could possibly still influence the jury’s overall decision (Greene, Heilbrun, Fortune, and Nietzel 2006). In my opinion it could be possible for a juror to disregard inadmissible information however it would be very difficult and it might cause problems for the individual as well. It would be difficult to forget something that was mentioned if it was something that would strongly influence one’s decision however if it was material that was not a big deal then it would not be likely that this would have much influence. In one study that was conducted jurors who were given proacquittal inadmissible information were less likely to convict than those who were given proconviction inadmissible information (Thompson, Fong, and Rosenhan 1981).

Tuskegee Syphilis Study

Clinton Kopas Susan Gabriel English 102 December 1, 2011 The Goal of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study Research studies are constantly being conducted in order to improve certain aspects of human life and knowledge. In many cases, these research studies involve human test subjects. One of the more famous studies involving human test subjects was the Tuskegee Syphilis Study that began in 1932. Most have heard of this study, few would ever claim that any good came of it.What had originally been a research study aimed at improving knowledge dealing with syphilis in the black male, turned into an extremely long and detrimental study that damaged hundreds of lives. Considering the damage that was done to the subjects and their families, it is easy to wonder if this study actually provided any real advances in medicine or medical knowledge. The origin of the study had good motives, being that it was to promote the health of blacks in the South. The U. S. Public Health Service collaborated with t he Julius Rosenwald Fund to conduct demonstration programs to control syphilis in southern counties.This failed due to funding issues, and the project had to be scrapped. However, the PHS was anxious â€Å"to salvage something of value from the project† (Thomas). So in 1932, a group of doctors recruited a total of 399 syphilis infected black men from Macon County, Alabama to participate in a study concerning the study of â€Å"bad blood†. The organizers took their initial idea and converted â€Å"the original treatment program into a nontherapeutic human experiment aimed at compiling data on the progression of the disease on untreated African-American males† (Herried; Fourtner; Fourtner).This study became formally known as the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male (Herried; Fourtner; Fourtner; Thomas). The formal name that was applied to this study may imply the true motives of the researchers behind it. The study was not necessarily meant to fi nd major breakthroughs in medicine, but to simply study the effects of untreated syphilis. The researchers attempted to justify what they were doing by saying it was going to be for a greater good, and that these men got more treatment than they would have gotten otherwise.This may be true in a sense, but the men in the study were still intentionally withheld from treatment once penicillin was known to cure syphilis. By 1948, penicillin was known to be the most and best effective cure for syphilis. The study went on for 22 more years even though a cure had been found. There is no point in attempting to learn anything more about an infection when a cure has been found. The only treatment that the infected men received was treatment involving arsenicals and heavy metals.This type of treatment was not nearly as effective and researchers knew it would not cure the men entirely, just keep them from being infectious (Reverby). It might not be going too far to even say that the researchers were conducting this experiment on the basis of pure curiosity. After all, there could not be much advancement made just studying the effects of syphilis in blacks compared to whites. Much about syphilis had already been known prior to the beginning of the Tuskegee Study. German scientists had already discovered most of what there is to know about syphilis over 20 years before the Tuskegee experiments had begun. The cause of syphilis, the stages of the diseases development, and the complications . . . . were all known to medical science in the early 1900’s† (Herried; Fourtner; Fourtner). It has been stated by many journalists and even some that were involved in the experiment, that nothing was gained from this long and drawn out experiment. All signs begin to point that it truly was an experiment based solely on curiosity. The black men that participated in the study were poor sharecroppers that would do and believe anything that the doctor told them. Most of these men had never even seen a doctor before in their lives.These men were promised free medical care for their bad blood, and drawn in by signs that claimed â€Å"last chance for treatment†. The doctors and scientists conducting the research had church leaders and other respected members of the community help to enlist people to participate in the study. The researchers even enlisted the help of a black nurse and admired her ability to help them gain the trust of the participants. If the researchers needed to lie to a group of people in order to conduct their experiment, these men would have been some of these easiest to fool (Infoplease; Thomas).The researchers that were involved in the Tuskegee Study are said to have been fairly liberal for the time and open to the education of blacks. However it seems that there was some sort of racist mind set involved in this scheme. The researchers seem to have had no regard to other human life and treated the men like lab rats. The researcher s even made sure that their goal would not be interrupted by others. They went to great lengths to make sure all medical professionals in the area participated in the study and gave orders not to give treatment to the men.The black men were even excluded from the draft during WWII to keep their research from being interrupted (Herried; Fourtner; Fourtner; Thomas) As the years went by, the study did not become less organized and forgotten. There were meetings held and new people were added to the project. The experiment was constantly reviewed throughout the years as the focus changed. Ethical issues were not brought up until halfway through the 1960’s, over 30 years after the experiment had begun. During the 1950’s, the focus turned to the aging of syphilis and the negative impact it had on the body.It was quite clear that syphilis caused great damage over time and would shorten the life span of the host. Even at this point in the study, when so many men had passed awa y and others had gone unaccounted for, the study continued. The researchers believed that the study had gone on for so long that the men were untreatable anyways, even with use of penicillin (Herried; Fourtner; Fourtner). To continue a research study like this and deny men treatment just on the basis of curiosity seems too unethical to be true. But all signs point to this especially when considering another research study that took place during the same time period.From 1946 to 1948, the American government performed research in Guatemala that involved intentionally infecting Guatemalan subjects with syphilis. The idea was to test the effectiveness of penicillin on different stages of syphilis. A very interesting detail is that a man by the name of Dr. John C. Cutler was involved not only in the Guatemalan study, but the Tuskegee study as well. It is strange that although Dr. Cutler was involved in both experiments, he did not choose to test the effectiveness of penicillin on the me n who were already infected with syphilis in the Tuskegee Study.Instead, he and his colleagues chose to allow syphilis infected prostitutes to sleep with Guatemalan prisoners. This truly shows the ethical value that the researchers held and what their true motives were (Villaroasa). Dr. Cutler and the other men involved in the Tuskegee research had no interest in any kind of advancement with the prevention of syphilis. A kind of bureaucracy was formed that helped fuel this unethical study. Men who were involved in the Tuskegee study would be promoted to surgeon general of the U. S. Public Health Service. Dr.Cutler even obtained the position of assistant surgeon general in the PHS. Dr. Cutler defended the integrity of the study up until his death (Thomas; Villarosa) It is hard to imagine that an idea that began with such good intentions could have turned into the catastrophe that was the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. The men who conducted this study seemed to have been fueled by a strange curiosity that they masked with the idea of medical advancement. It is clear that the researchers did not view people with darker skin colors as equal, as they treated them like lab animals.It is evident and even admitted by some involved in the study that there were no advances in medicine because of the study. The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male only came to a close because of a national press release in 1972. By this time, over 370 men that had been used for research were either dead or believed to be dead. If the researchers had any true notion to help them, that number would have been much smaller. Not only had this study affected the men directly involved in it; it affected the men’s wives and their children as well.There is no questioning the goal of the experiment being to see what would happen to someone if syphilis was left untreated. The doctors could have only continued this experiment based off of some strange curiosity. It is possible tha t some of them may have believed what they were doing was for the better, but that is hard to imagine. Nothing was gained from the experiments in the Tuskegee Study. The only possible advancement would be the understanding of ethics for future research. Works Cited Fourtner, A. W. , C. R. Fourtner, and C. F. Herreid. â€Å"†Bad Blood†: A Case Study of the Tuskegee Syphilis Project. Philosophy. tamucc. edu. Texas A&M University. Web. 15 Nov. 2011. Reverby, Susan M. â€Å"Listening to Narratives from the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. † Lancet 377. 977B (2011): 1646-647. TheLancet. com – Home Page. Web. 28 Nov. 2011. Thomas, Stephen B. â€Å"The Legacy of Tuskegee. † Thebody. com. HealthCentral Network, Jan. -Feb. 2000. Web. 15 Nov. 2011. â€Å"The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment. † Infoplease. com. Pearson Education, 2007. Web. 15 Nov. 2011. Villarosa, Linda. â€Å"The Guatemala Syphilis Experiment's Tuskegee Roots. † Theroot. com. The Slate Gro up, 02 Oct. 2010. Web. 28 Nov. 2011.

Perrines Literature Structure, Sound, Sense 11th Ed. (Poetry) Essay Example

Perrines Literature Structure, Sound, Sense 11th Ed. (Poetry) Essay Example Perrines Literature Structure, Sound, Sense 11th Ed. (Poetry) Paper Perrines Literature Structure, Sound, Sense 11th Ed. (Poetry) Paper Essay Topic: Poetry Alliteration The repetition at close intervals of the initial consonant sounds of accented syllables or important words. From stem to stem. Cacophony A harsh, unpleasant-sounding choice and arrangement of sounds Imagery The representation through language of sense experience Personification A figure of speech wherein human attributes are given to an animal, an object, or a concept Stanza Equivalent of paragraph in poetry. A group of lines whose metrical pattern is repeated throughout the poem Simile A figure of speech in which an explicit comparison is made between two things essentially unlike. Metaphor A figure of speech in which an implicit comparison is made between two things essentially unlike Onomatopoeia The use of words that supposedly mimic their meaning in their sound. Cuckoo, honk, meow Didactic Poetry, fiction, or drama having as a primary purpose to teach or preach Rhetorical Poetry Poetry using artificially eloquent language, that is, language too high-flown for its occasion and unfaithful to the full complexity of human experience Sentimental Poetry Poetry that attempts to manipulate the readers emotions in order to achieve a greater emotional response than the poem itself really warrants Hyperbole Obvious and intentional exaggeration not to be taken literally. To wait an eternity. Assonance The repetition at close intervals of the vowel sounds of accented syllables or important words Consonance The repetition at close intervals of the final consonant sounds of accented syllables or important words Allusion A reference, explicit or implicit, to something in previous literature or history. Metonymy A figure of speech in which some significant aspect or detail of an experience is used to represent the whole experience. the bottle for strong drink, or count heads (or noses) for count people. Couplet Two successive lines, usually in the same meter, linked by rhyme Denotation The basic definition or dictionary meaning of a word Cannotation What a word suggests beyond its basic dictionary definition. A words overtones of meaning Oxymoron A figure of speech by which a locution produces an incongruous, seemingly self-contradictory effect, as in cruel kindness or to make haste slowly. Paradox A statement or proposition that seems self-contradictory or absurd but in reality expresses a possible truth.

Mingus essays

Mingus essays Two Portraits of Charles MingusOne in the Lived Medium of Film and Another Music is a lived, performative medium that cannot be fully encompassed in description. Even when an individual piece of music is rendered into print in an effective and moving fashion, it still changes the nature of the music itself into something differentnamely, into a piece of prose that is a crafted example of the written art, rather than a work of music that is a moving and vibrant work of sound. One of the greatest jazz musicians of recent date is that of Charles Mingus. His work and his life cry out for a biography of his contribution to the musical medium and of his life as a performer. How to render the genius of the man in such a way that his personality and his contribution to musical history can be understood' Perhaps the best, albeit imperfect way, turn to print only as a way of fleshing out the concrete details of Mingus' contribution to jazz after spending one's live loving his music. In the absence of this, seeing the man on film through a documentary such as "Charles Mingus: The Triumph of the Underdog," offers another opportunity for a music historian to see the man and listen to the tunes But how to contextually render that life in history' The text of Central Avenue Sounds offers perhaps the best literary compromiseit is a work of prose, but one that offers an oral history of jazz. Through weaving in the voices of different musicians, and different perspectives of the musicians of the Los Angels music scene' the book hopes to offer a fully-fleshed internal as well as external history of these artists. Charles Mingus was a critical influence upon many of these artists, as well as was influenced by those who preceded him. But the book is not only a triumph, to borrow the documentary's title, of prose. It is also ...

Thomas Malthus Biography

Thomas Malthus Biography Early Life and Education: Born February 13 or 14, 1766 - Died December 29, 1834 (see note at the end of the article), Thomas Robert Malthus was born on either February 13 or 14, 1766 (different sources list both as a possible date of birth) in Surrey County, England to Daniel and Henrietta Malthus. Thomas was the sixth of seven children and began his education by being home schooled. As a young scholar, Malthus excelled in his studies of literature and mathematics. He pursued a degree at Jesus College in Cambridge and received a Masters of Art degree in 1791 despite a speech impediment caused by a hare-lip and cleft palate. Personal Life: Thomas Malthus married his cousin Harriet in 1804 and they had two daughters and a son. He took a job as a professor at the East India Company College in England. Biography: In 1798, Malthus published his best known work, Essay on the Principle of Population. He was intrigued by the idea that all human populations throughout history had a section that were living in poverty. He hypothesized that populations would grow in areas with plenty of resources until those resources were strained to the point that some of the population would have to go without. Malthus went on to say that factors like famine, war, and disease in historical populations took care of the overpopulation crisis that would have taken over if left unchecked. Thomas Malthus not only pointed out these problems, he also came up with some solutions. Populations needed to stay within appropriate limits by either raising the death rate or lowering the birth rate. His original work emphasized what he called positive checks that raised the death rate, such as war and famine. Revised editions focused more on what he considered preventative checks, like birth control or celibacy and, more controversially, abortion and prostitution. His ideas were considered radical and many religious leaders stepped forward to denounce his works, even though Malthus himself was a clergyman in the Church of England. These detractors made attacks against Malthus for his ideas and spread lies about his personal life. This did not deter Malthus, however, as he made a total of six revisions to his Essay on the Principle of Population, further explaining his points and adding new evidence with each revision. Thomas Malthus blamed the declining living conditions on three factors. The first was the uncontrolled reproduction of offspring. He felt families were producing more children than they could care for with their allotted resources. Second, the production of those resources could not keep up with the expanding population. Malthus wrote extensively on his views that agriculture could not be expanded enough to feed the entire population of the world. The final factor was the irresponsibility of the lower classes. In fact, Malthus mostly blamed the poor for continuing to reproduce even though they could not afford to care for the children. His solution was to limit the lower classes to the number of offspring they were allowed to produce. Both Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace read Essay on the Principle of Population and saw much of their own research in nature being mirrored in the human population. Malthus ideas of overpopulation and the death it caused was one of the main pieces that helped shaped the idea of Natural Selection. The survival of the fittest idea not only applied to populations in the natural world, it also seemed to apply to more civilized populations like humans. The lower classes were dying due to lack of resources available to them, much like the Theory of Evolution by Way of Natural Selection proposed. Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace both praised Thomas Malthus and his work. They give Malthus a large portion of the credit for shaping their ideas and helping to hone the Theory of Evolution, and in particular, their ideas of Natural Selection. Note: Most sources agree Malthus died on December 29, 1834, but some claim his actual date of death was December 23, 1834. It is unclear which date of death is correct, just as his exact date of birth is also unclear.

Community Policing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Community Policing - Assignment Example By community partnerships, expected participation and collaboration by law enforcement agencies with other members of the community are seen to be instrumental in contributing to the peace and order of local communities. Organizational transformation, on the other hand, means â€Å"the alignment of organizational management, structure, personnel, and information systems to support community partnerships and proactive problem solving† (Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS), n.d., par. 3). And, finally, the problem solving process includes relevant elements such as scanning, analyzing, providing immediate response, and evaluating the effectiveness and success of response programs and initiatives. The benefits of community policing programs (or foot patrol) were revealed by Trojanowicz and Pollard (1986) as follows: increased contact on a one-on-one basis between law enforcement officers and citizens; fostering of increased trust; enabling law enforcements to focus on eminent problems in the community; by being actively seen, this approach gives greater public support, and immediate availability to address emergency situations (pars. 16 & 17). As revealed in Pearson Education (2010), there are five distinct core police operation strategies that assist law enforcement agencies to meet their goals. These core strategies are as follows: preventive patrol, routine incident response, emergency response, criminal investigation, problem solving, and support services (an ancillary operational strategy). These were validated by Scott (2000) in his published work entitled â€Å"Problem-Oriented Policing: Reflections on the First 20 Years†. A vivid example was clearly indicated by Trojanowicz and Pollard (1986) as follows: â€Å"one neighborhood may suffer a particularly large number of problems with juveniles, therefore the officer there devotes a greater share of his time to such concerns, perhaps

Crime in the Suites Effects of Power and Privilege Essay

Crime in the Suites Effects of Power and Privilege - Essay Example In spite of the larger cost to lives and property, there appears to be a tendency for many law enforcers and many parts of the society to disregard or lightly deal with crimes committed by individuals with power, influence and high standing on society. The definition of elite crime has changed and expanded over the years such that the focus has been transferred from social class to occupation. There are now two recognized classes of elite crime: "corporate crime" and "occupational crime". The former refers to the offenses committed by the management or any employees that aimed to benefit or protect the corporation. Occupational crime refers to acts committed by an individual who made use of his employment for extra gains. This includes embezzlement of funds, leaking trade secrets and procurement fraud. To be more precise, elite crimes are offenses requiring the offender to be (1) a corporate entity or a representative thereof and/or (2) performing a particular position at the time the offense was committed. With this classification and definition, offenses are categorized as white collar crime regardless of all social classes so long as it has the characteristics provided above. Elite criminals are considered to behave more rationally than street offenders as the later routinely operates in hedonistic contexts while the former work in settings that promote prudent decision making and exercising greater care and caution. Elite crimes also differ from street crimes in conduct as it uses deceit, guile and/or misrepresentation to exploit for illicit advantage or create the appearance of a legitimate transaction. Previous studies in criminology focused in explaining why people commit crime and why some are more likely to commit an offense. With Sutherland's exposition of 'elite crime', a paradigm shift has occurred where the focus now lies in a sociopolitical analysis of crime. One such paradigm is the conflict theory which contends that legal content is primarily determined by those possessing great power and influence derived from membership to powerful groups of race, gender, social class and resources. The theory sees the law not as an objective, agreed-upon list of deviant and socially damaging behaviors but a doctrine tailored to serve the interests of the powerful. Privileged individuals can also impact the way the criminal justice system operates such that it targets only those who lack power and ignores the crime of those who have. Conflict theorists consider the criminal justice system to be consciously and intentionally biased. Essentially, society is in conflict due to innate diff erences and those who have the power to prevail determine what is right and wrong or in this case, whether an act is a crime or not. Following the conflict theory, we can see the reasons why white collar crime has not been given proper attention in spite of the statistics showing that it has more deleterious effects on society as compared to those 'blue collar' crime. White collar crime, especially the corporate type, involves people with great resources and connections that provide them the power to influence politicians, legislators, police and even the judiciary in the definition of what is legal and what is criminal. Several corporations and even private entities have already been exposed to providing financial support, especially in the elections, in exchange of political and

Quantitative Methods and Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Quantitative Methods and Analysis - Essay Example Information can be gathered from huge number of people in a very less time, Questionnaires are also considered as feasible, encompass low financial resources and collects immense amount of knowledge in a lesser time. It is suitable for variety of topics relating to variety of fields for variety of jobs. Questionnaires are also considered as cost-effective as to gather and pool the information has nowadays become much easier due to readily available computer software (DÃ ¶rnyei & Taguchi, 2010). The primary reason of unreliability of questionnaires is that many respondents do not have research sense and are unmotivated as they feel that it would not benefit them from in any way therefore they do not prefer to provide the correct answers which lead to the unreliability and misleading information. The researcher has no opportunity to correct the mistake of the respondents. Respondents often forget or hide the true information intentionally or unintentionally. Sometimes respondents even don’t know the exact response towards the questions. If the overall impression of a person towards the topic is positive he will less likely provide answers in a negative manner (DÃ ¶rnyei & Taguchi, 2010). The study of Olivero & Lunt (2004) used interview technique as part of data collection tool to compare the privacy and willingness in terms of e-commerce exchanges. Long qualitative interviews were held for participants using repeated e-mail exchanges. Interview data were combined with insights from the literatures on self-disclosure, sociology, and consumer research in a grounded theory analysis. In a grounded analysis of theory, based on self-disclosure, consumer research and sociology, the interview data was gathered in light of previous studies. Initially an introductory e-mail was sent to participants elaborating the purpose of research and the interview process. Before conducting the

See below Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

See below - Essay Example For instance, it has never been established that illicit drugs manufactured in Australia have been exported to other countries like the United States (Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, 2007). In Australia, the Commonwealth, the States and the Territories cooperate with each other in making legislation that addresses the supply, distribution, possession and use of narcotics. These bodies share the responsibility for enacting relevant legislation. There is a trans-state supply of illicit drugs in Australia, which has no geographical boundaries within the nation. Moreover, it is also evident that in certain incidents there had been cross national supply of drugs (The Attorney - General, 1989). The courts and the police employ drug diversion initiatives to treat drug addicts. These initiatives attempt to divert users from taking drugs. Education and compulsory assessment are two major diversions provided to drug abusers. After completion of the assessment, drug users are shifted to the appropriate education or treatment program. In April 1999, the Council of Australian Governments or COAG implemented the national strategy, by which concrete and concerted action was to be taken against drug peddlers and possessors (Crime Prevention and Community Safety Learning Circles). The National Illicit Drug Diversion Initiative provides early intervention measures for first time abusers and other less serious offenders; which provide either treatment or education, without involving the criminal justice system. The aim of this strategy is to encourage and motivate drug users to identify their drug addiction, at an early stage, and obtain appropriate treatment. This enables them to rejoin society without causing any adverse impact and ensures safety. Proponents of diversion schemes argue that educating users and providing subsequent treatment measures for first time users in the early

Personal statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 7

Personal Statement Example I soon came to realize that I could admire and respect those teaching professionals who are equipped, through education and experience, to provide students with a well-rounded curriculum as well as serving as advocates when the student requires additional support in a variety of different domains. This is why the university experience has been so valuable and why I continue to seek to improve my lifelong learning and worldview. Before becoming a student at Bangor University, I was enrolled at the Beijing Institute of Technology where, during the first year, I struggled to achieve more than average marks in Financial Accounting and Management Accounting. It was not because the curriculum was significantly difficult, it was simply due to my own unfamiliarity with radically different teaching methods in the UK as opposed to Chinese teaching methodology. However, I was determined to rectify what I perceived to be a minor deficiency, communicating to my tutors that I was having problems a djusting to the UK culture. Because of the aforementioned support, I was able to make the appropriate adjustment, learn about the absolute value of diversity and cultural disparity and achieve much higher marks by eliminating apprehension that once existed due to said lack of knowledge about the UK educational and social environment. I ultimately scored an 80 in Finance in my 2012-2013 academic year which was, in my opinion, a significant achievement and improvement of which I am quite pleased. It was, again, through the excellence of those engaged in the university experience that allowed me to exceed any boundaries and find personal fulfillment associated with high achievement. The university experience has given me many new perspectives and assisted in broadening my scope of knowledge that, today, allows me to successfully examine a variety of academic theories and effectively apply them to real life business and social scenarios. Some of this growth can be attributed to my volun teer work at the Beijing Institute of Technology in which I was responsible for introducing new students to the campus lifestyle and assisting them in adjusting to the living conditions of the campus and accommodating their needs to improve study and general lifestyle. It was my responsibility to map out efficient routes between the main study buildings, restaurants and any other campus-related need, thus essentially serving as a student-to-student advocate of which I received much appreciation and friendship development. Through this volunteer program at BIT, I further enhanced knowledge of cultural diversity and the absolute importance of embracing diversity in both an academic and social context. I am greatly satisfied with the outcomes that I experienced in the volunteer program which not only equipped me with a better understanding of human needs and behaviours, but also enhancing my preparation and management skills. On a personal note, I have a wide variety of hobbies that he lp to cultivate my abilities and further expose me to cultural differences within a social context. I am well-skilled in dance and in piano which not only allow me to embrace the beauty of the arts, but also improve intrinsic drive and ambition to succeed. I have found that my involvement in the arts serves as a motivational force that continues to further develop my capabilities as dance and piano require deep commitment and determination, which are two success

Introduction to political science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Introduction to political science - Essay Example Therefore it is the relation of production that helps in shaping the different political systems that exist in the world. (Bottomore, 1991). Democracy means an effective consent of the governed. Liberalism means respect for the individual being. Again democracy means â€Å"location of a state’s power, that is, in the hands of the people, whereas ‘liberal’ refers to the limitation of the state’s power†. A â€Å"liberal democracy is a political system in which the people make the basic political decisions, but in which there are limitations on what decisions they can make†. (Watson, 1999, p.3). It can thus be said that liberalism in its modern form is basically a system in which an individual can use the state power according to the wish of the majority. It can also be said that liberalism tends to take the form of tyranny which involves the rule of one for his or her personal interest. And here lies the paradox of liberal democracy. It becomes very difficult to fit Marx among the nineteenth century democrats. It has also been found that democracy gained comparatively little from Ma rxism; instead it suffered a great deal from Marx and his followers. Democracy may mean a lot of things. It may mean belief in a particular form of government, that is a government formed by the majority and a government which constitutes representative institutions. It may also mean a certain idea about the particular forms of the government. But neither of these definitions allows Marxism to penetrate through Democracy. As belief in government by consent is not in line with the view of historical progress which states that the progress was a product of the class war which had taken place influenced by Marxism. Therefore it is natural that Marxist theories have been used as an argument to negate the theories of liberal democracy. But it cannot be said that Marx was completely anti-democratic. Yet democracy can acquire yet a

Personal statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 7

Personal Statement Example I soon came to realize that I could admire and respect those teaching professionals who are equipped, through education and experience, to provide students with a well-rounded curriculum as well as serving as advocates when the student requires additional support in a variety of different domains. This is why the university experience has been so valuable and why I continue to seek to improve my lifelong learning and worldview. Before becoming a student at Bangor University, I was enrolled at the Beijing Institute of Technology where, during the first year, I struggled to achieve more than average marks in Financial Accounting and Management Accounting. It was not because the curriculum was significantly difficult, it was simply due to my own unfamiliarity with radically different teaching methods in the UK as opposed to Chinese teaching methodology. However, I was determined to rectify what I perceived to be a minor deficiency, communicating to my tutors that I was having problems a djusting to the UK culture. Because of the aforementioned support, I was able to make the appropriate adjustment, learn about the absolute value of diversity and cultural disparity and achieve much higher marks by eliminating apprehension that once existed due to said lack of knowledge about the UK educational and social environment. I ultimately scored an 80 in Finance in my 2012-2013 academic year which was, in my opinion, a significant achievement and improvement of which I am quite pleased. It was, again, through the excellence of those engaged in the university experience that allowed me to exceed any boundaries and find personal fulfillment associated with high achievement. The university experience has given me many new perspectives and assisted in broadening my scope of knowledge that, today, allows me to successfully examine a variety of academic theories and effectively apply them to real life business and social scenarios. Some of this growth can be attributed to my volun teer work at the Beijing Institute of Technology in which I was responsible for introducing new students to the campus lifestyle and assisting them in adjusting to the living conditions of the campus and accommodating their needs to improve study and general lifestyle. It was my responsibility to map out efficient routes between the main study buildings, restaurants and any other campus-related need, thus essentially serving as a student-to-student advocate of which I received much appreciation and friendship development. Through this volunteer program at BIT, I further enhanced knowledge of cultural diversity and the absolute importance of embracing diversity in both an academic and social context. I am greatly satisfied with the outcomes that I experienced in the volunteer program which not only equipped me with a better understanding of human needs and behaviours, but also enhancing my preparation and management skills. On a personal note, I have a wide variety of hobbies that he lp to cultivate my abilities and further expose me to cultural differences within a social context. I am well-skilled in dance and in piano which not only allow me to embrace the beauty of the arts, but also improve intrinsic drive and ambition to succeed. I have found that my involvement in the arts serves as a motivational force that continues to further develop my capabilities as dance and piano require deep commitment and determination, which are two success

Social Psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Social Psychology - Essay Example This paper focuses on social psychology as a branch of psychology. As a branch of psychology, social psychology concerns itself with the understanding of individual’s mental behaviors, functions and processes within a social context (Vala and Costa-Lopes, 2012). Myers and his co-authors (2010) also define social psychology as the scientific field that aims at understanding the causes and nature of the behavior of an individual in social situations or contexts. Therefore, it looks at the behavior of an individual as influenced by the social context and other people around where this takes place. In other words, social psychology can be described as a discipline that employs scientific methods in understanding and explaining how the feeling, behavior, and thought of an individual are influenced by the implied, imagined, or actual presence of other people in a particular context, or different situations (Letitia, et al., 2005). While the discipline also relates with sociology by looking on group factors such as socio-economic class and race, it relates to psychology in the sense that it looks at these factors by focusing on an individual. The discipline focuses on a broad range of social topics such as social perception, non-verbal behavior, prejudice, conformity, leadership, aggression, and group behavior, among others (Funder and Krueger, 2004). Apart from looking at the social influences, this discipline also looks at the issues to do with social interaction and social perception, all of which are essential in understanding an individual’s behavior within a social context (Rogers, 2011). Like other disciplines, social psychology has developed over years to become an acceptable and scientific field of study and practice around the world. While the influences of social psychology can be traced to early centuries, it started to develop as a discipline in the wake of the twentieth century (Vala and Costa-Lopes, 2012). The earliest influences of this d iscipline came from such philosophers as Aristotle and Plato. Aristotle held the belief that human beings are naturally sociable creatures, a feature that allows them to live together. His view was considered as an individual-centered approach because it considers an individual essential in a social context. On his part, Plato believed that the state was critical in controlling individuals and encouraging social responsibility through social situations and contexts. Plato’s view came to be known as the socio-centered approach (Letitia et al, 2005). In the 1800s, there was the introduction of social psychology concepts such as social facilitation and social loafing. This discipline developed further at the dawn of the twentieth century when texts in the field started to emerge, the most notable text being â€Å"An Introduction to Social Psychology,† which McDougall wrote in 1908. The writing of texts in the field in subsequent years greatly contributed to the developmen t of this discipline (Myers, et al., 2010). The period after the Second World War is credited for the substantial development of social psychology and research in social psychology. The horrors of the war led several researchers to develop interest in researching various social psychology topics such as conformity and social influence (Vala and Costa-Lopes, 2012). Some of the research focused on how individual behaviors and attitudes are shaped by social context, how they are formed, and how they can be measured in order to ascertain if change

Curriculum and Instruction Essay Example for Free

Curriculum and Instruction Essay Alvermann, D. E. Strickland, D. S. , (Eds. ); (2006): Bridging the literacy achievement gap, grades 4–12. New York: Teachers College Press. This focuses on literacy achievement gap in achievement of those who underperform especially adolescents. Literacy characteristics have been examined and the varied challenges groups of learners face. School wide and classroom practices have also been described in this book. Alvermann worked with instructors and hence was able to know the issues related to instruction. The shortcoming of this resource is that it uses very limited age bracket of adolescents and its main focus is the adolescents. It would be more resourceful for those below twelve years and not stretch too far to adolescents which it does not focus on. Anderson, T. H. Armbruster, B. B. , (1998): On selecting â€Å"considerate† content area Textbooks; Remedial and Special Education, 9(1), 47–52. The article discusses three features that relate to content-area textbooks which make them â€Å"considerate† for readers in terms of coherence, structure, and audience appropriateness. The authors discuss what the books those are in existence lack and offer suggestions to educators on how best they can improve the existing books to make them learner appropriate. The authors are seasoned educators thus giving what they advocate for credibility. Beers, K. (2005). When kids can’t read: A guide for teachers 6–12; Portsmouth, Heinemann Beers uses student oriented and classroom explanations in guiding teachers through the planning, assessing and implementing reading kinds of instructions for teachers and learners in middle and high schools. The components of an effective reading instruction which includes strategies and the resources that teachers may use in the classrooms to improve their reading. Beers himself is a knowledgeable author in issues relate with early childhood education and targets teachers of the young kids. The material is relevant to the kids only although some illustrations in it may be applicable to those who start reading late in life. Carlisle, F. J Rice, M. S. (2002): Improving reading comprehension. Baltimore: York Publishers. This text gives a comprehensive discussion on the theoretical basis of comprehension reading and how it is related to other components of reading. It aims at improving the reading comprehension through the author’s giving of the instructional principles that guide in selecting and using practices so as to teach reading comprehension and how it relates to other components of reading in depth. This book is vital for those learners who have problems in issues relating to comprehension. The book is an all-round one, drawing other components of reading into perspective. The learners will not therefore find in it a wholesome study of comprehension. Cibrowski, J. (1995): Using textbooks with students who cannot read them. Remedial and Special Education, 16(2), 90–100. Cibrowski summarizes the materials that have been written on effective instructions using textbooks. His article describes the strategies that a content-area or special teacher can use with his/ her students who have proved to be fast readers. The designed techniques help such learners widen their conceptual thinking. It further gives the levels of analysis, before instruction, during and after in addition to stating the criteria for effective strategies: a committed teacher, student belief and teacher’s ability to model strategic thinking. This material is superb for higher achievers. Coyne, M. D. et. al (2007): Effective teaching strategies that accommodate diverse learners. New York, Prentice Hall. This book outlines how learners with different physical cognitive, cultural and other diversities can be catered for in a classroom. The strategies expounded are vital for teachers in that in every classroom situation, there must be an element of diversity which they have to address for meaningful learning to take place. The material is thus gives a comprehensive to teaching-learning experience and therefore highly recommended. Davis, M. H. Guthrie, J. T. , (2005): Motivating struggling readers in middle school through an engagement model of classroom practice. Reading Writing Quarterly, 19, 60–85. The authors discuss six dimensions of change in disengagement and low motivation in elementary and middle school learners. The authors further suggest six classroom practices that can be used by middle school teachers in changing the learners’ attitudes resulting from changes in classroom. The authors, being educators themselves give ample information to other educators being challenged by low motivation and disengagement from their learners. Deshler, D. Swanson, H. L. , (2003). Instructing adolescents with learning disabilities: Converting a meta-analysis to practice. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36(2), 125–135. The authors summarize the results obtained from meta-analysis of some educational interventions for disabled students. Some interventions were used in the instruction and it was found that a good deal of these components can be incorporated into the classroom instruction with impressive results. The authors are specialist in education of disabled persons. This material is important for those who wish to make instruction of disabled learners a success and a lot easier and interesting. Gersten, R et. al; (2001): Teaching reading Comprehension strategies to students with learning disabilities: A review of Research. Review of Educational Research, 71(2), 279–320. This review of research on effective instruction for reading comprehension for students with disabilities gives detailed study on the expository and narrative texts. The authors of this material give the summary of cumulative knowledge gained through research based knowledge. The authors work with a panel of analysts on educational matters. It is a good material if one wants to know the material in depth courtesy of the review provided. It can assist educators a great deal in their attempt to gain more knowledge in comprehension strategies that they can use on their learners. Hilden, K. Pressley, M. (2004): Toward more ambitious comprehension instruction . In E. R. Silliman L . C. Wilkinson (Eds. ), Language and literacy learning in schools (pp. 152-174). New York: Guilford. Pressley and Hilden, who are educators, bring forth in this resource the thinking of comprehensive instruction by critically analyzing sources which support ambitious comprehensive instruction. The resource thus reviews research history of comprehension and the evolution of knowledge base. The resource is a good one because it further discusses in its conclusion the relationship comprehension and other reading instruction elements. Jetton, J. T. Dole, A. J. (Eds. ); (2007): Adolescent literacy research and practice. New York: Guilford. This volume is a compilation of contributions from researchers in the important literacy areas of students in middle and high school. It centers on research and interventions for adolescents with problems in reading. Students, according to the researches, have issues that may affect their reading for instance motivation, assessment and cultural influence. The curriculum should be tailored to provide for the problems that these learners may have. The book states this in detail and thus a critical resource for Adolescent literacy. Meltzer, J. , et. al (2001): Adolescent literacy resources: Linking research and practice. Providence Education Alliance, Brown University Retrieved 20th March, 2006 from http://www. alliance. brown. edu/topics/literacy. shtml This is research for secondary school teachers who would wish to incorporate instruction across the content area. It is a review of literacy research materials from various fields and focuses them to the classroom situations. Important concepts that aid adolescent literacy have been discussed. This material is best for secondary school teachers and is vital for them since it gives the results of current researches and links them to classroom practice. The authors are practitioners in the education sector. McKeown, G. M. Beck L. I (2007): Improving comprehension with Questioning the Author: A fresh and expanded view of a powerful approach. New York: Scholastic In this book the authors explain why implementing the questioning technique is good and suggest its optimal implementation. It is aimed at supporting students to gain meaning from a given text. They have provided several classroom cases, of which they individually participated, which give realistic explanations and illustrations of the process. The book is good enough for teachers and learners in informing the use of Questioning of the author in order to guide the students’ comprehension reading. The authors have worked closely with educators meaning that their information is as they saw in the field. I highly recommend the book for both teachers and students who need to improve their/ their learners’ comprehension. Moje, E. B. (2006): Motivating texts, motivating contexts, motivating adolescents: An examination of the role of motivation in adolescent literacy practices and Development; Perspectives, 32(3), 10–14. This is a brief synopsis of research findings based on the role that different contexts and texts play in the motivation of adolescents to face the various challenges associated with literacy practices. It advocates for changes in texts used and the contexts in which they are used saying this is the essence of motivation since motivation is not static. Moje is a renowned educator who weaves a positive criticism on the existing instruction materials making his ideas worth putting in practice. National Association of Secondary School Principals ;( 2005): Creating a culture of Literacy: A guide for middle and high school principals. Reston, V. A This is a guide that provides Secondary School administrators with tools for creating Schoolwide literacy plans aimed at addressing the needs of learners whose reading is below the basic levels. It draws its premises from components that influence the ultimate achievement of the learners. The study gives a proposal on the reforms that can be done to minimize the problem for instance commitment of leaders in instruction, balancing assessment of formal and informal natures among others. The association encompasses head teachers from all schools in the country and who are administrators in their respective schools thus versed with many educational issues. The limitation of the resource is that it used the ideas from head teachers only and left out other stake holders who may have different views Nystrand, M. (2007): Research on the role of classroom discourse as it affects Reading comprehension; Research in the Teaching of English, 40(4), 392–412. Nystrand, in this article reviews 150 years of empirical research that target on classroom discourse. There are various research methodologies used and the research vouches for discussion within the classroom setting in improving reading and comprehension. The author is an English teacher of many years. The review is qualitative based on the number of varied reviews it has made and thus the reference to a variety of cases and researches thus highly recommended for all instructors; not just those teaching English. O’Brian, D. G et al. (1999): Why content literacy is difficult to infuse into the secondary school: Complexities of curriculum pedagogy, and school culture. Reading Research Quarterly, 30, 440–460 The authors of this material discuss the inadequacy and of the traditional model of professional development in building the proficiency of students in the instruction of content literacy. It recommends a change in curriculum via looking at the social and cultural contexts in which the schools are set. The society, the resource says, has values, beliefs and practices embedded in it that the teachers, learners and the school community identify with. O’Brian is a sociologist thus understands the influence of the environment in learning. I find the book very important because it highlights the importance of the environment in the learning processes Pressley, M. and Block, D. (Eds. ): (2007). Comprehension Instruction: Research-based Best practices. New York: Guilford. This material resulted from contributions from thirty nine scholars who contributed their understanding in reading exercise related to comprehension. It has varied but harmonized experiences and thus can be used as the best resource for the understanding of the nature of comprehension instruction. The research also charts a way forward for researchers in consolidating research knowledge and further expounds on the nature of comprehension in different levels of schooling. The material targets all instructors in the field of comprehension learning. I recommend the material for instructors because of extensive research that brought it forth hence making it qualitative. Rosenshine, B. , et. al (1996). Teaching students to generate questions: A review of the intervention studies. Review of Educational Research, 66, 182–220 This intervention studies review is aimed at teaching students on how they can generate questions so as to improve their reading comprehension using prompts. It analyzed 26 research studies which showed that the use of signal and generic question stems provided the best positive effects of comprehension standardization. The research cannot be qualified as having weaknesses because it gives the learner a center stage in learning how to comprehend better. The authors have teaching experiences in various schools and levels. Swanson, H. L. (2004): Research on interventions for adolescents with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis of outcomes related to higher-order processing. The Elementary School Journal, 101(3), 331–348. The analysis here was carried out on 58 studies related to problem solving interventions meant for those students with disabilities. Several factors that increase student performance were identified and categorized into short term. Swanson is a researcher and educator giving credibility to his work. The focus of this material is on adolescents with disability Sweet, A. P. , Snow, C. E. (Eds. ): (2003). Rethinking reading comprehension; New York: Guilford. The authors inform of effective teaching by building on comprehension reading research that was developed by a research group, RAND. Key issues in comprehension reading and research findings related to adolescents and the strategies used to address student needs are highlighted. The material is helpful especially due to it being tied to the researches conducted. It makes the issues real because they were stumbled on during the research. The author himself is a researcher in various fields. I highly recommend this material for teachers and learners targeted by the research (Adolescents) Tanner, D. , Tanner, L. (2007) Curriculum development: Theory into practice. Pearson. Tanner and Tanner purpose to highlight what a comprehensive curriculum should entail so as to bring forth an all rounded learner after instruction has taken place. It gives the principles to be followed in curriculum and how the theoretical perspectives advocated for in the texts are put into practice. Learners should be orientated so as to internalize that which they learn easily. Trabasso, T. , Bouchard, E. (2004): Teaching readers how to comprehend text strategically. (In C. Block and M. Pressley) (Eds. ), Comprehension instruction: Research-based best practices p. 170– 194. New York: Guilford. The authors explain the findings of 205 investigations on the impact that cognitive strategy of instruction on reading comprehension. The authors are researchers in psychologists and researchers in the field. Strategy instruction, the research postulated, was more effective than the traditional mode of instruction. Further, the authors discuss twelve types of comprehension strategies and two instructional strategies identified as effective in improving the comprehension of students. Teachers will find this book useful in improving comprehension in their students. Meyer, BF. Walker, CH. (1980): Integrating different types of information in Text; Journal of Verbal behavior and Learning, 19:263–275. This is a discussion on the knowledge integration theory which provides a contextual field for exploration on learners’ formation of relationships between background and new information. The authors give a summary of the research which investigates this theory. Walker and Meyer are regular contributors to psychology related journals. The material is a good one because it gives some practical examples for educators on how to integrate new and old information for learners so as to enable them participate in tasks which require sophisticated comprehension Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved on 2nd April, 2009 available at http://www. all4ed. org/publications/AdolescentsAndLiteracy. pdf The discussion here centers on the crisis facing the literacy adolescents. It examines four reviews that deal with reading research and presents students with measures to improve their reading. There are factors that teachers should also consider for instance motivation, although this is also aimed at the learners themselves. Students will find this material very useful in improving their reading. Evaluative summary of the Bibliographies This selected bibliography of the items on adolescents’ literacy resources is a result of broad review of research carried out by professionals mostly in the educational sector. The students mostly addressed are those of 4-12 years of age. The contents of the various resources have been summarized and therefore whoever wants to have a quick overview of what there is to adolescents’ curriculum and instruction will surely get something worthwhile. The issues addressed in the bibliography can be summed up as follows: Some researches done for instance Nystrand’s, article which reviews 150 years of empirical research that target on classroom discourse show a great deal of traverse on time that the researchers have done to bring the best for Adolescents. There are various research methodologies used and the research vouches for discussion within the classroom setting in improving reading and comprehension. The review is qualitative based on the number of varied reviews it has made and thus the reference to a variety of cases and researches thus highly recommended for all instructors; not just those teaching English. Other reviews too give a lot of excellent information from educationists who give their own experiences. An example is Pressley’s whose material resulted from contributions from thirty nine scholars who contributed their understanding in reading exercise related to comprehension. It gives varied but harmonized experiences and thus can be used as the best resource for the understanding of the nature of comprehension instruction. The research also charts a way forward for researchers in consolidating research knowledge and further expounds on the nature of comprehension in different levels of schooling. The material targets all instructors in the field of comprehension learning thus highly recommended for them. Beers uses student oriented and classroom explanations in guiding teachers through the planning, assessing and implementing reading kinds of instructions for teachers and learners in middle and high schools. This is a critical material since it combines the basic factors that need to be considered in teaching: student oriented and classroom explanations. It makes the learner be the focus of the teaching- learning process. The components of an effective reading instruction which includes strategies and the resources that teachers may use in the classrooms to improve their reading. Beers himself is a knowledgeable author in issues relate with early childhood education and targets teachers of the young kids. The material is relevant to the kids only although some illustrations in it may be applicable to those who start reading late in life. The reviews in some of the researches focus on effective instruction for reading comprehension for students with disabilities, giving detailed study on the expository and narrative texts. The authors of these materials, for instance Gersten (2001) give the summary of cumulative knowledge gained through research- based knowledge. The material gives in depth information due to the detailed research conducted in writing it. Davies and Guthrie discuss six dimensions of change in disengagement and low motivation in elementary and middle school learners. They authors further suggest six classroom practices that can be used by middle school teachers in changing the learners’ attitudes resulting from classroom changes. The authors, who are educators, give vital information to other educators facing challenges from low motivation and disengagement from their learners. Cibrowski, in his work summarizes the materials that have been written on effective instructions using textbooks. His article describes the strategies that a content-area or special teacher can use with his/ her students who have proved to be fast readers. The designed techniques help such learners widen their conceptual thinking. It further gives the levels of analysis, before instruction, during and after in addition to stating the criteria for effective strategies: a committed teacher, student belief and teacher’s ability to model strategic thinking. Fast students therefore are also catered for in this bibliography in terms of how they can be taught without affecting their enthusiasm. This bibliography also has materials that show the impact of cognitive instruction strategy, which is shown as the most effective mode of instruction as opposed to the traditional mode. Authors in this issue also discuss types of comprehension strategies that educators can refer to in their teaching. In conclusion, the materials chosen in this bibliography will go a long way in assisting educators know how to manage better the issues related to instruction and at the same time give them an opportunity to expand their scope. The learners also have a reason to have a look at this bibliography. There are materials summarized whose focus is the learner. The influence of the environment on the learning process has also been given in one of the resource materials in this bibliography. It is, in short, a detailed bibliography but other sources can still be sought for the purposes expounding or adding to what has been given.

Programs to rehabilitate young offenders

Programs to rehabilitate young offenders The intent of this dissertation is to explore the current shaping of the youth justice system and also to explore the programs that are in place to help rehabilitate young offenders who have been placed in young offender institutes. This research will discuss and examine the effectiveness of these programs put in place for young people who are in custody to help prevent them from re-offending once they are in the community. In 2006 the number of prisoners under the age of 21 years in England and Wales stood at 11, 672 and 2,528 of those where children (juveniles). In the past decade or maybe more the number of children and young people entering the penal custody in England and Wales has increased very significantly. It is believed that at least 85 percent of juvenile prisoners are held in Young Offender Institutions (YOI). Young offender institutes are described as specialist penal facilities which are usually managed by the prison service. These institutions are designed for prisoners aged 15-20 years. In these institutions male juvenile prisoners these are from the ages of (15-17 years) are normally detained separately from young adult offenders those who are 18- 20 years old. There are some exceptions to this rule which can at times be applied to female juvenile prisoners (Goldson and Muncie 2006). In England and Wales there is a total of 17 young offender institutes and 13 of those establishments ar e for males and the remaining 4 are dedicated for females up to the age of 17 years (www.yjb.gov.uk ). There are so many explanations which come in to light when it comes to the rise of crime among young people. The aim of the writer is to explore and evaluate the true prevalence youth re-offending and the issues and risk factors that underpin the rehabilitation of people in custody and how effective the rehabilitation programs put in place for young people are. Firstly the literature review will consider relevant viewing the topic of the current model and thinking of the youth justice system. It will also begin by looking at the history of youth imprisonment. Chapter two will explore the programs in place for young people in custody geared towards their rehabilitation. Chapter three will describe and analyse the methodology used in acquiring data. In the fourth chapter the writer will evaluate the rehabilitative programs/the initiatives found in young offenders institutions. The writer will conclude by discussing and summarising the findings and making and future recommendations for future practice. PART TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW The main legislation governing the youth justice system is the Crime and Disorder Act 1998, which sets out the systems primary aim which is to prevent offending and re-offending by children and young people. The 1998 Act developed the Youth Justice Board and also the Youth Offending Teams which can be found in every local authority in England and Wales. It is the belief that the main aim of the youth justice system is to prevent offending and re-offending by young people and children (National Audit Office, 2010). It is said that they are four arguments which are put forward for the use of custodial sentencing for young people these are Rehabilitation, Deterrence, Incapacitation and Retribution. Bateman et al (2005) suggests that the argument for Rehabilitation is that the prison should be able to deal with the underlying problems in a way that offenders who remain in the community can not be dealt with. Deterrence it is claimed has both individual and general forms. It is suggested that the presence and use of custodial institutions will prevent young people from committing crimes that might send them to serve custodial sentences. According to the individual form it is expected that custody will discourage those who experience it from committing any more crime so they can avoid further incarceration. Incapacitation is an argument which proposes that if young people who offend are removed off the streets, then they can not offend and so youth crime will reduce. Retribution is an argument which is sometimes used as a rationale for the use of custody. The person who commits the crime is made to pay for the crime they committed. However it is the belief that there is little effect in punishment unless it changes a persons subsequent behaviour (Bateman et al, 2005). Exploring the legislative history of youth justice and the development of the youth justice practice from 1997 onwards. Until 1908 there was no separate court which dealt with young offenders. The children act 1908 was developed and this led to the creation of the juvenile courts, however these courts were presided over by the same magistrates who sat in the adult courts and their formation showed very little understanding of the reasons why children and young people commit crime and also that the needs of children and young people who stand before the courts may be different from those of adults (Dugmore et al, 2006). According to Dugmore et al (2006) it was stated that it could be argued that there was some confusion which arouse at the inception stage between the different approaches which needed to be used when dealing with those children and young people who had committed offences and also those who where just in need of care. The 1908 Childrens Act gave the court authority over both care and criminal issues. Due to the judicial body having control over both the depraved (criminals) and the deprived (children in care) this Act gave birth to the system paying more attention to the process of distinguishing between the different types of young people who came before the juvenile justice system and by difference we mean those young people who deserved to be punished and those young people in need of help and care. The next momentous piece of legislation is the Children and Young Persons Act 1933. Goldson (2008) stated that: This Act aimed to strengthen certain enactments relating to young persons under the age 18 years in particular and The Children and young persons Act 1933 acted and revised measures relating to the protection of and employment of children generally and to criminal proceedings in particular. According to Dugmore (2006), the Act was passed as a result of the Maloney committee (Home office, 1927) which contained a blend of positivist and classicist explanations in children and young people. In this report, it was stated that law breaking was seen as a deliberate act of defiance, which had to be dealt with in the formality of the court and its Sanctions. However, it is recognised that delinquent behaviour may be caused by environmental and psychological factors that were beyond the young persons control. The 1933 Act played an important role in establishing what became known by many professionals such as social workers and others as the Welfare principle, however, Goldson (2008) suggests that much of this large and important legislation has since been transformed or discontinued. Even though this seems to be the case some of the sections of this 1933 legislation is still valuable and better still a majority it was very much still in use until recently. Section 44 of the Act is still regarded as very important for children and young people in court proceedings this is because it states in this section that the court shall have regard to the welfare of the child or young person who stands before it this principle also applies to the crown prosecution service and it is considered to be a weak principle compared to the paramouncy principle which is in 1989 Children Act. It was sated in this Act that the childs welfare must be the factor which determines the courts decision when it comes to the upbringing of a child (Goldson, 2008). Goldson (2008) stated that it was suggested that the duty to have regard means that consideration is provided with regards to the interests of the child or young person, the crown and youth magistrates courts can legally give precedence to other interests such as the need to prevent re-offending and to protect the public. However, this legislation stressed the need for the Juvenile courts to deal with children separately and whilst treating them differently. The Ingle by Report (1960) which is known as the report of the Home Office Departmental Committee on Children and Young persons was responded to by the Government through the introduction of a new piece of legislation which is the Children and Young persons Act 1963 and this legislation is mainly applicable to England and Wales. There are two provisions of this act and number one is concerned with the age of criminal responsibility meaning the minimum age of which a child may be charged with a criminal offence. In this report, it was recommended that age for criminal responsibility in both England and Wales should be raised from 8 to 12 years with the responsibility of a further rise to 13 to 14 at some time in the future. However the then Conservative government refused and by way of compromise increased the age of responsibility to 10. The Children and Young Persons Act 1969 according to Pickford (2006) is considered to be the most welfare orientated established with regards to the treatment of juvenile offenders. This Act was introduced by the Labour government which was in power at that time. It is stated that some of the more welfare orientated provisions of the Act such as the proposal to allow local authorities to deal with juvenile delinquents by using methods such as supervision, arranging care and raising the age of criminal responsibility to 14. These proposals never came into force due to the incoming Conservative government which refused to implement these ideas, however during that same period in Scotland there was little opposition to the Welfare Model of youth justice as proposed by the Kilbrandon in Scotland (Home office, 1964) as cited in (Pickford, 2006). The 1969 Act granted the criminal court the power to pass a criminal sanction on a young person that in effect amounted to a welfare provision the criminal care order which was abolished in 1989. In this sentence both the deprive and the depraved became one and the welfare measure became a criminal sanction (Muncie, 2004). It is stated by Pickford et al (2006) that this legislation created greater powers of discretion for social work but did nothing to stem a rising flow of custodial disposals. Exploring the Current model of the youth justice policy and philosophy Many academics such as Fionda (2005) and stated that one case in 1993 known as the James Bulger case who was killed by two 10-year-old boys changed the opinion of the public and the direction of the youth justice policy in relation to young offenders. The belief is that the shock of the public which was largely fuelled by the media following the case led to a moral panic about how children and young people were breaking the law Cohen (1973). Some academics for example Jenks (1996) argued that the Bulger case led to the death of childhood innocence and the subsequent demonisation of youth. It is suggested that due to this realisation, children were no longer considered too pure and innocent they were now considered capable of the worst kind of evil ever imagined. The idea that children were born innocent and so need to be protected from a society that is corrupt was abandoned and society adopted the notion that children are born capable of evil and need to be controlled (Hendricks, 2002). Academics such as Brown (2005) have agreed that the medias portrayal of young offenders allegedly being treated softly by the juvenile justice system swung the political and publics opinion towards a period of getting tough on youth criminality. Public statistics suggest that the number of young offenders aged 10 to 17 found guilty r cautioned of an indictable offence fell by 30percent between 1987 and 1997. According to Nacro (1999) since 1987, the number of male juvenile offenders has fallen by 33% and female young offenders by 17%. Pickford (2006) highlighted that the frenzy about the problem of youth crime appears to make little sense when the statistical data for that period analysed. The number of young people receiving custodial sentences during that period rose, whilst the number of young offenders detained under sentence fell by approximately 50 per cent between 1980 and 1993. Statistics show that these figures then rose up by at least 56 per cent in the four years leading u p to 1997. Together with the hysteria caused by the media the rise in the figures worked well with the development of a definition called persistent offender over this era and also the getting tough policies which related to the individuals put in this category. In the run up to the 1997 electione political debate surrounding the general election promised a law and order agenda from all major parties. Labours promise was to get tough on crime as well as the causes of crime and this included youth crime. In this period the government in power (Labour Party) established a youth crime task force and the momentum for reform of the criminal justice continued. As a result of this reform seven consultation papers were released and five of those papers related directly to youth justice. These five consultation paper relating to youth justice where published by New Labour after its election to government in1997 setting out its proposals for reform (Pickford, 2006). The 1998 Act was passed as a result of those seven papers. The Act was passed by the New Labour government to provide a root and branch overhaul of the youth justice system, which was to be implemented over a number years following the establishment of and feedback from pilot schemes and pathway sites, which tested the ground of the new reforms (Goldson, 2008). Bateman et al (2005) stated that according to the then Homer secretary Jack Straw the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 represented one of the most radical shake up of youth justice in 30 years. The Criminal justice provisions promised victims of crime a voice in the outcome of criminal cases, while the new civil measures offered to empower middle England by handing it the legal and administrative means to re-establish order and civility in its communities. The entire system was to be vigorously managed at a local level to ensure that it all joined up and offered best value to the public. Section 37 of the 1998 Act emphasized the primary aim of prevent and it states that: It shall be the principal aim of the youth justice system to prevent offending by children and young people (Goldson, 2008). Under this section a duty is placed on all personnel working within the youth justice area to have regard to this very important aim while carrying out their duties. The Home office Juvenile Offenders Unit in order to deliver this principal aim set out a number of key objectives are: Encouragement of reparation. Reinforcement of parental responsibilities. Intervention into risk factors including family, social, personal and health factors. Tackling delays- halving how long it takes for young offenders to be passed from arrest to sentence from an average of 142 days in 1996 to a target of 71 days. Confronting the young offenders with the consequences of their offending and encouraging responsibility for actions. Introduction of a new range of penalties in order to enable those who enforce punishments to punish in proportion to the seriousness and persistence of offending. The Crime and Disorder Act 1998 set out six key themes which would assist with achieving the objectives set out above. Section 41 of the act related to the national framework and it set up a framework for the national Youth Justice Boards operation this was aim at encouraging and monitoring nationwide consistency in the implementation of the system of youth justice whilst ensuring goods standards for good practice and good delivery of the service. Section 73 established a new detention and training order which was implemented in April 2000. This order is claimed to be a constructive and flexible custodial sentence with a clear focus on preventing re-offending behaviour. The order can be used by both youth and crown courts in respect of all young offenders under the age of 18years who have been found guilty of an offence that if committed by an adult would be an imprisonable offence. The sentence is split into two half is spent in detention and the other half under supervision is the community (Dugmore, 2006). Section 8 of the act created a parenting order made applicable to the parents of those convicted offenders under the Criminal Justice Act 1991. The new order combines requirements of parents to fit in with their individual situation. However the order may place specific responsibilities on a parent such as ensuring their child attends school everyday. Section 6 and 7 encourages the development of local partnerships to provide a method for identifying Crime and Disorder problems within a local framework in a particular area. Section 67 brought in the reparation order which was designed to help young people who offend to face up to the consequences of their offending behaviour. Section 69, 11, 14 and 65 all of these orders are to do with tackling offending behaviour and providing early intervention for young people (Dugmore, 2006). The Youth Justice Criminal Evidence Act 1999 which was amended by the Powers of The criminal Courts Act 2000 helped achieve the proposals of reform which were outlined in the 1997 White Paper No more excuses (Home Office, 1997d). It is said by Crawford et al (2003) that the act created what is known as a referral order which was compulsory and meant for young people convicted for the first time. With this referral order, a young person is referred to a youth offender panel (YOP) which consists of members of the local community and it is put together by youth offendings teams. This order can be served for periods of between 3 months to a year. Under this order, a contract is drawn up with the young offender and their parents specifying the details of the order. The contracts are made specifically to suit the needs of the young person involved. The referral order is also designed to address the young persons offending behaviour in order to help prevent them from re-offending. The order must include preparation and can at time involve community work, contact with the victim, mediation and participation in education programmes or individual activities. The belief is that once the order is completed, the young persons offence has been spent for the purpose of the Rehabilitation of Offenders Act 1974. Other significant legislative changes Fionda (2005) suggests that following the 1998 and 1999 Acts there has been no statute specifically addressing youth justice practice that has been passed, meaning that many of the reforms are still being considered to be fairly new by experienced youth justice practitioners. However there have been other statutes which have been passed which cover criminal justice and these have had impact on youth disorder and criminal justice procedures. Youth imprisonment within its current model and philosophy The writer Jewkes (2010) suggested that in contemporary Britain there has been an emergence of the adultified child and this is due to the high rate teenage pregnancies, children winning the right to divorce their parents, children being tried in adult courts and many more. It is argued that in England and Wales children are criminalized at a much earlier age and also they are more inclined to lock children up, compared to other countries such as Belgium, Austria, France and many others. It is claimed that in England and Wales twice as many children are put into custody (Goldson, 2003). According to jewkes (2010) one could claim that since the teenage rebellions of the 1980s and 1960s, the age at which young people may be designated folk devils has decreased. However since the beginning of 1990s there have been regular reports about the pre-teenage children committing very serious offences such as burglary, rape and many others (Jewkes, 2010). The age of criminal responsibility in England and Wales is 10 years which means anyone aged 10 and above can be held criminally responsible for their actions. Between 2000- 2010 provisional data showed that young people have committed 201,800 offences even though they make up only 11 percent of the population which is above the age of criminal responsibility. It is estimated that offending by all young people cost the economy 8.5 11 billion pounds in 2009 alone. The crimes most committed by young offenders and which they are commonly convicted of are theft and violence. However even though these young people havent been offending for a long time compared to adult offenders it has been noted that at least a third of those young offenders been previously been convicted, warned or reprimanded in relation to an offence (National Audit Office, 2010). It is claimed by the National Audit Office (2010) that they has been a 14 percent reduction in the number of young people held in custody over a duration of five years. Although at times in some cases the use custody is deemed necessary, it is the belief that custody is of limited effectiveness in reducing re-offending behaviour and is considered to be the most expensive sentencing option. It is said that Youth Justice Board is meeting its objective to reduce custody numbers partly through the use of other means which encourage caseworkers to recommend community sentences. CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY In order to gain further knowledge regarding youth offending rehabilitation and imprisonment of young people, the secondary data utilised for this work includes, reports, internet sources, papers, journal articles, textbooks and reports published by the Home Office, Nacro. There are a vast number of ways that data can be obtained. As suggested by Clifford and Gough (1990) when considering the data collection, method selected is compatible and appropriate to both the aims and the theoretical framework being used by the study. METHODS FOR DATA COLLECTION There are two major approaches to gather information these are secondary data and primary data. This study will use secondary data because it is readily available and it takes less time than using primary data. Primary research is very time consuming in terms of establishing samples, arranging and completing interviews, and the collecting and processing data. It is stated by Bryman (2008) that secondary data is the most common research method used by social science researchers today. According to Bryman (2008, p296) secondary data involves the processing of data that has already been collected by other parties or researchers. With this method of research, researchers will consult previous studies and findings such as books, reports, appropriate internet sources such as Youth Justice Board, Nacro, Her Majestys Inspectorate of Prisons, journals and many more. Academic books, journal articles and reports used throughout this dissertation, provided an excellent method of gathering secondary data from well established and respected authors for example Professor John Muncie, Tim Bateman and Professor Pitts. Literature suggests that most secondary data uses qualitative methods, so the research method used would be mainly qualitative. However, qualitative methods aim to study people in their natural social settings and to collect naturally occurring data. Qualitative describes in words rather than numbers. This is opposed to quantitative data which as the manipulation of numerical data through statistical procedures for the purpose of describing phenomena or assessing the magnitude and reliability of relationships among them (Bryman, 2008). Quantitative allows us to see when, where and which social conditions are most likely to create the situations in which young offenders find themselves which in turn encourage them to offend. Qualitative methods on the other hand, can help us develop an understanding of the complexities of young peoples behaviour attitudes and in the context of their experiences whilst in custody in preparation for when they are released back into the community. Qualitative method is for this current study because quantitative research is more concerned with collecting and analysis of data that focus on numbers and frequencies rather than on experience or meaning. In contrast to the research topic, qualitative method helps to develop an understanding of young peoples attitudes, experiences and feelings. As noted they are many reasons why young people re-offend and why custody is used as method of rehabilitation. Understanding these reasons will be a key target for researchers if we are to understand issues around custody, rehabilitation programmes and re-offending of young people in the future. ETHICAL ISSUES Ethical issues had to be taken into account, even though the writer did not use primary research in the study. There is a procedure which requires all participants of the research to give informed consent before conducting any research. Participants must be fully made aware of the nature and procedures of the research. The information given during interviews must remain confidential and not presented to those not directly involved in the study. The British Sociology of Criminologys guidelines on ethics for researchers have been consulted and no ethical issues were noted in relation to the nature of this secondary research project. CHAPTER THREE: OFFENDING BEHAVOIUR PROGRAMMES The main task for youth justice managers and practitioners is to make certain the selection of offender oriented programmes which have been proven to be mainly effective or at least show that in the future they can chive the main goal. Bloom (2006) formulated some questions which are central to the assessment of what works he states What social programs, policies and interventions work? For whom do they work, and under what conditions? And why do they work- or fall short? (Bloom, 2006). What are the offending behaviour programmes? One could claim that that there are two fundamental ways in which to change a young persons behaviour by changing either or both the environment in which he or she hangs or lives in and also by changing the actual individual. It has been highlighted that the most important cause of criminality amongst young people who offend is their individual characteristics whilst for others it is their environment be it the community, home life and much more (Wikstrrom et al, 2008). COGNITIVE BEHAVIOURAL THEARPY (CBT) The idea of CBT is that if you can change the way a person be it male or female perceives and thinks about the social settings they come across and their actions, you can change that persons behaviour. This prevention model suggests that cognition is significant for behaviour and short-term interventions can change young peoples cognition in a way that significantly impacts their offending (Wikstrom et al, 2007). CBT is a fairly new intervention type which has began from advances in the understanding of the role of internal cognition in the expression of external behaviours. In the past three decades according to Leschied (2002) cognitive science and neuropsychology have advanced rapidly bringing a new awareness of how the ways in which persons feel and think influences how they react to the settings in which they take part. This progression is claimed to have revolutionised thinking in the field of criminology. The study of the causes of crime has extended to the causal chain from internal to environmental influences through attention and perception. It is suggested that successfully influencing elements in behaviour and crime causation can have significant and a long-term impact on how individuals choose to act (Wikstrom, 2006). CBT is built around the idea that cognition affects behaviour which also includes offending behaviour. It is believed that individuals have the capacity to monitor and adapt their ways of thinking, which can change how they react to those settings. Hollin (1990) extended this theory by suggesting that offenders may think and feel differently than non-offenders and that this difference in cognition may be the causal link to their offending behaviour. However there are many different types of cognitive behavioural interventions which aim to correct distorted, deficient and dysfunctional cognition which may reinforce offending behaviour by teaching new cognitive skills such as self awareness, moral reasoning, interpersonal perception and many more which increase awareness of the link between thought processes and maladaptive behaviours, and support an individuals ability to actively change those processes in a more positive way (Wilson et al, 2005). Coyle (2005) stated that cognitive behavioural interventions can affect different areas of cognition and behaviour example which may be target are for example decision making, emotional characteristics of behaviour. Areas which are commonly addressed by CBT are victim impact, anger management, moral reasoning social skills training cognitive restructuring, relapse prevention and much more. Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) within Young Offender Institutions (YOI). Wilson et al (2005) states that within Young offender institutions CBTs are usually delivered in groups of 8 to 12 offenders. One of the most commonly use interventions applied in YOI are Moral Reconation Therapy (MRT), which is a moral reasoning intervention, which targets moral developments and is delivered in groups of between 10 and 15 participants, Reasoning and Rehabilitation (RR), a cognitive skills training intervention, which is delivered in groups of six to eight participants. There are also other therapies which according to Kurtz (2002) are deemed to be popular and effective these therapies include Aggression Replacement Training (ART), which include anger management, moral reasoning elements and other cognitive skills training interventions, which target awareness of thinking patterns, the perceived legitimacy of offending behaviour and problem solving skills to encourage consideration of alternatives. MULTI-SYSTEMIC THERAPY (MST) MST focuses on the need for changes in an offenders immediate social environments such as their family. School and peer environments, the aim is to help reduce or prevent their problematic behaviour and offending. It is the belief that offenders do not act in a social vacuum and their criminality is an outcome of their interaction with the social environment. It is claimed for example that it may be easier to change an offenders moral values and habits that support law breaking by also changing those aspects of the individuals environment that may influence or support such values (Wikstrom and Treiber, 2008). The writer Borduin et al (2003) said that MST was developed specifically to treat youths with serious offending and behaviour problems. MST is aimed youths aged between 10-17 years. It is individualised intervention programme which is intensive and targets the social systems in which a young person who offends operates. MST views offending behaviour as a consequence of the link between individuals and the external systems in which they partake in socially. The primary goal for MST is to promote multi-faceted change in individual, school, neighbourhood and familial variables which influence offending There are two theoretical explanations of which MST draws up, the first is Bronfenbrenners human ecology theory which suggests that there is a link b