Private Enterprise Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Private Enterprise - Essay ExampleMany private enterprises partner with the Department of m otherland Security to make sure that extenuation of threats is achieved as well as to defend themselves against threats. The same department is responsible for minimizing risks like terrorism attacks. Department of Homeland Security maximizes the ability where they are equal to healthfully respond to terrorist who attack the states or local governments (Kamien, 2006). Additionally, the department is concerned with prevention of disasters that may occur. Through the effort that is provided by the Department of Homeland Security, strong foundations with other department that are concerned with security matters are able to protect communities in the entire United States. Additionally, terrorism and treats of all kinds are lessen for the purpose of safeguarding the key rights of all the United States residents.Since the private sector in the United States operates approximately 85% of Critical Infrastructure and Key Resources (CIKR), this makes the Department of Homeland Security to engage measures to safeguard the infrastructure and resources that are owned by private sector. In addition, the protection of critical infrastructure is the work of the government and other security agencies. This ensures that CIKR are safeguarded so that the public and private sector may partner together thus making the economy to be stable. When the partnership is effective, collaboration is achieved where the Office of Infrastructure Protection (IP) is concerned with all the critical infrastructure and key resources. The department of the Infrastructure Protection (IP) will have to play a role where effort to reduce the risk of destruction or threat to the sector is emphasized through Critical Infrastructure Protection Program since it is the boorishs most productive sector (Bullock and Haddow, 2012). To protect the private sector, government

Human Rights and Sexuality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5500 words

Human Rights and knowledgeableity - Essay ExampleIt is due to the reason that in the modern world, to endure justification to gender hierarchies and maintain a fundamental base of affable structure, legal constitutions play a vital role in terms of social orientation rights in any coun crusade . This configuration of the mankind society supposedly raises a question that as a social being, are human not free to have sex as they will to, or do they lack control on their self determination which should be manoeuvre by a few documented legal acclamations . But certainly this is not the question that is to be focused in this study. The nature of social political orientation towards human rights relative to their social orientation have changed dramatically realising the social and biological enclosure that sexual orientations in a human life puke also be in homosexual terms rather than only in straightaway ways. This revolutionised the legal systems related to human rights and sex ual orientations motivating galore(postnominal) countries to accept that marriages can even take place between two peoples of the same sex as homosexual mode of orientation, such as UK, fall in States, South Africa and India among others . However, in the highly adaptable and complex social stature of the 21st century, socialists perceive contrasting views regarding the legal framing of homosexual orientation and heterosexual orientation simultaneously in the same country. Due to this reason it is still being commentated that in some countries same-sex couples can marry, while in others the death penalisation is still handed down for homosexual acts . ... Taking into account the importance of legal constitutions in terms of sexual orientation rights, this paper will try to assess that whether this kind of contradicting views can co-exist in the same international legal order and how does this performance correlate with gender hierarchies and national identities. Recent Developmen ts in the Sexual Orientation Rights The conceptual meaning of rights has changed to a large extent in the current decade from that of the aboriginal centuries when it was initially introduced. To be mentioned, human rights, in the early years of its establishments, fundamentally meant the freedom of people from being deprived by the autocratic behaviour of the state. But in todays context, rights are by and large meant to be classless political processes where the intention is to secure individuals and the entire population from being offended by the power owned by the state. With this point of view, democratic countries have brought into practice the right of clean environment, rights to peace and similar others focusing on the entire economic health and thus is often referred to possess a broad scope eliminating the uniqueness and specific dichotomy of human rights. Right to sexual orientation is also considered to be one of the recent additions to human rights that turn tail to broaden the conceptual framework of human rights towards a more indistinct disposition5. In this connection, studies from the past few decades have observed that remarkable changes have wedge the relationship existing between human rights and sexual orientation. In the current scenario, scholars argue more on the concerns of sexual rights

Summary and Response Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Summary and Response - Coursework ExampleReflecting mainly on Egypt and Tunisia, ODonnell projects how Howards study indicated that social media formed online networks that organized core groups of activists to preach for political reforms she reports specific ways in which Howards study shows the opposition groups used social media to influence political debates. First, she argues that Twitter enabled people to engage in instantaneous conversations, especially during the overthrow of Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. The discussions on Twitter crossed borders, and influenced the neighboring nations to converse about the political affairs in Tunisia and Egypt. As a second point, she quotes the findings that point out videos protests communicated the events of the Arab uprising to the rest of the world. Not only were the video protests important inside Egypt and Tunisia, but also Howards findings show the rest of the globe depended on them for updates on the uprising. For instance, twenty-three videos attracted 5.5 million views. In addition to Twitter and video protests, the instant Facebook messages and blogs inspired the revolution in Arab countries, and the attempts of the government activity to stop social media conversations resulted in strong activism. The opposition groups utilized blogs and Facebook to pass the information about the need for political change to many audiences. In sum, ODonnell reports how Howards findings associate the social media with the Arab uprising.ODonnell strongly contends that the social media, especially Twitter was instrumental in facilitating communication that led to the Arab uprising. She firmly quotes Howard who indicated, During the week out front Egyptian president Hosni Mubaraks resignation, for example, the total rate of tweets from Egypt-and around the world-about political change in that country ballooned from 2,300 a day to

Radio Ad Essay Example for Free

Radio Ad EssayAre you elderly? Are you having problems with arthritis, osteoporosis, or injuries from falling? Here is the information that you remove been looking for, how to promote a healthy musculoskeletal system, from n superstar other than Dr. Solomon, Concierge MD. Me Dr. Solomon, what exactly is the musculoskeletal system? Dr. Solomon The musculoskeletal system consists of your bones, and your muscles. In this system one is as important as the other. Bones are important because they provides needed protection for your organs as well as providing a support to the muscles so that they give the sack function properly. Me What are the risk factors for arthritis?Dr. Solomon at that place are several factors that can contribute to developing arthritis. Anywhere between the types of shoes that you wear, to the type of drinkable you consume in the morning. Me What can we do to prevent arthritis?Dr. Solomon In order to decrease the chance of getting arthritis, maintaining a h ealthy weight and exercise part is a must. Me What about osteoporosis risk factors and prevention? Dr. Solomon There are several risk factors for osteoporosis, some of which are not preventable. These risk factors are sex, age, race, family history, and frame size.There are also risk factors that are associated with your hormone levels, dietary factors, steroid use, and lifestyle choices. Ways to prevent osteoporosis depend on whether it is due to environmental factors, or genetics. Genetic form of osteoporosis cannot be prevented. However, you can decrease your risk by not being too skinny, because the bones deteriorate faster, consuming calcium, exercising and tutelage a proper meal plan. Me Now we have heard about arthritis and osteoporosis, what about injuries sustained from falling?Dr. Solomon We all know that the elderly are at risk for falling for a number of different reasons. The risk for falls increases with age. However, age does not cause all falls. Most falls are the impart for another causes. Muscle weakness in the legs, blood pressure drops, dizziness, slower reflexes, etc. Some things that can be done to prevent falling can be removing clutter, loose rugs, carrying heavy items up or down stairs or uneven flooring, not having rails for stairs or bathroom bars. Me wellspring that is all the time that we have for today. Thank you so much for being here with us Dr. Solomon, and for all of the information that you provided us with.Referenceshttp//www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/74700/E82552.pdf http//media.pearsoncmg.com/pcp/pls_1256317047/ch15_pg430_thru_433.pdf http//www.slideshare.net/sacklax40/musculoskeletal-system-324696

Culture, Ethnicity, and Health Care Practices Essay Example for Free

Culture, Ethnicity, and Health C ar Practices Essay1. Identify two religious or spiritual practices in which members of the Evans Family whitethorn engage for accomplishing hypertension, diabetes, and mental illness. In the text, the Evans family is introduced as an African-American family, and members of the Baptist church. Members of this family stimulate been diagnosed with hypertension, diabetes, and mental illness, dis quietens that the family whitethorn attempt to treat with religious of spiritual practices. insouciant prayer whitethorn be a spiritual/religious practice used by the Evans family to treat the mentioned health conditions. African-Americans consider themselves spiritual beings, and sickness is witnessed as a separation between God and man (Purnell, 2003, p. 49). In an attempt to get closer to God, daily prayer would be viewed as a overbearing aspect to accomplish this, lessen the separation between themselves and God, to improve or abolish the sicknesses. God is viewed as the supreme healer, and the Evans family may besides be asking God through prayer for ameliorate to improve the illnesses, and restore their health.Another spiritual practice which may be employed by the Evans family to treat the hypertension, diabetes, and mental illness which they are experiencing involves the laying on of hands. African Americans may hold the belief that diseases can be cured when a person of assurance gifted with special healing powers touches the afflicted person. This touch is usu eachy accompanied by prayer. Sometimes, it is believed that the laying on of hands is thought to free the person from all suffering and pain, and people who still experience pain are considered to have little faith (Purnell, 2003, p.50). It is important that the health care provider be assured of these spiritual practices, their potential effect on the health care plan, to provide culturally competent care. 2. Name two feedary health risks for African American s. ordinary diets for African Americans can reflect the regional cuisine, but at that place are some foods and suits of foods that are considered central to the diet. Salt pork, or elaborate back is a staple ingredient in many African Americans diet, and reflect the tendency of the diet to be actually high in fat, cholesterol, and sodium.This type of diet is associated with high blood pressure, heart disease, stroke, and diabetes these conditions do occur at a higher prevalence in the African American population. Another diet related health risk involves the tendency to view people of healthy body weight as being underweight and learning more meat on their bones (Purnell, 2003, p. 47). Even in infancy, it is a common practice to avoid underfeeding by feeding newborn infants liquefied cereal mixed with formula and addicted through a bottle.African Americans believe that giving only formula is starving the baby and that the infant needs real food to sleep through the night (Pur nell, 2003, p. 47). These views may lead to a tendency to overeat, and be overweight, which is associated with the increased risks for the health conditions listed above. Health care providers can be in a sight to give nutritional information, and recommend resources to assist patients to reduce dietary health risks, while maintaining the spirit of traditional cuisine. A magazine published by a health network directed at African Americans encourages healthier, culturally sensitive changes Dr.Jones stresses that eating healthy doesnt mean having to give up favorite foods. It clean means preparing these dishes in a healthier fashion. That includes traditional favorites, uniform intelligence foodone of the oldest and richest cuisines in America. While its always been good for the soul, soul food is usually not so good for the heartBut soul food doesnt have to be bad for you. You can go by to enjoy your ages-old family recipes in a new, health-conscious style by changing your cook ing methods (Advocate Health Systems, 2007, p. 2). 3.What historical precedence is there for distrust of orthogonalrs in Appalachia? People in Appalachia are characterized as having a distrust of outsiders, and are often unwilling to share their true thoughts and feelings with them. Part of the historical precedence that contributes to this distrust centers on their previous dealings with referenceity in the form of the large mining and timber companies. The Appalachian people were exploited by having their land taken by these outside business interests, who then subsequently attempted to control the behaviors of the workers for their own profits. in that location is a strong reliance on family and community individualism and self-reliant behavior, and reverences for family rip are highly note valued within this culture. Appalachia has been characterized by poverty and isolation, which can result in cultural lag. in that respect has historically been a limited admission charge to education, as well as less of a valuing of higher education, with an emphasis placed upon l take uping skills necessary to enter the traditional employment fields and earn a living. These factors encourage the continuing distrust of outsiders.Communication styles reflect a general distrust and unease with outsiders. Materials or oral communication presented at a level that is beyond the understanding of the client may lead one to believe that the provider is stuck up or putting on airs and may add to a general feeling of distrust. Traditional Appalachians may value a large amount of personal distance, direct eye contact, and may value silence. They are often unwilling to communicate true needs in an attempt to be polite.Be baffle of historical inequities with interactions with causalityity figures, including outsider health care providers, traditional Appalachians may not respond well to teach or instruction that is perceived to be an order they may be much more candid to hint s and suggestions which solicit the clients opinions (Purnell, 2003, pp. 73, 74). Because of improved technology, transportation, educational and employment opportunities, and more exposure to outside culture, traditional Appalachia may be changing, and the barriers and distrust of outsiders will be lessened.However, an Appalachian educator notes The mountains have figured into all of it. The mountains kept us so isolated from the rest of the country and from other peoples involvement in our lives that we developed these characteristics We are very independent, we are very contented with the places that we live, we are very close to nature, we have a deep sense of a belief in God, and we have a deep sense of being friendly and kind to one another and helping one another, and taking care of everyone else in their needs.And we also have a strong sense of whats right and what ought to be and a deep mistrust of anyone whos new, anyone whos a stranger. We dont trust change very well and we dont like change very well (Morgan, 2005, p. 1). 4. What evidence do you see of the ethic of neutrality in this facial expression study? The case study presents a view of the client by using her preferred terms, language, and presents her views in an objective manner. The case study seems to reflect the point of view of suffer Leona, and it respects her unique perspective. The author uses the words of the speaker to explain herreasons for doing things in a way that reflects aspects of the culture. For example, rather than state that Miss Leona may have difficulty reading medication instruction manual, the author includes the information that she was only educated through the third grade, and states She admits not using the salve given to her by Dr. Adi because he told her to apply the salve according to the instructions on the jar (Purnell, 2003, p. 89). The author does not make any judgments relating to the health related behaviors of the people in the case study.Several ele ments that illustrate cultural man concepts are objectively presented. The use of folk medicine is demonstrated, with no evaluation of the home remedies, including the application of a bacon grease poultice to the leg wound. Similarly, the author presents Miss Leonas own explanations of her illnesses, including her statement that she has low blood, in a subjective manner. The ethic of neutrality is maintained through an objective account of her situation, as experience by the patient alone, within her unique perspective. 5. How might you help Miss Leona eat a more nutritious diet?In the case study, the elderly Miss Leona reveals that she has been diagnosed with a heart disease, which her physician attributes to a high fat diet. She believes that her heart problem is instead related to the recent death of her husband, base in part on the timing of the diagnosis. She has expressed her dissatisfaction with the physician who has diagnosed this condition, because he did not communicate adequately during the visit. Miss Leona reveals that her diet is mainly high fat meat, dairy, and simple starches she doesnt mention fruits or vegetables at all.These foods are easy for her to prepare, and readily available. She demonstrates the difficulty in bringing food to her home, because she has to walk up a steep grade and a footbridge to get to her home. She does rely on others to bring her groceries at times, but makes it clear that she values self reliance. In compliance with traditional Appalachian cultural values, Miss Leona would most likely not respond well to being told directly which foods that she needs to eat to stay healthy.Rather, a practitioner would have to engage her in more of an indirect chat that would show knowledge of Miss Leonas unique situation, and respect her likes and dislikes, and her need for ease of food preparation. The practitioner would also have to address the issue of being able to accept assistance needed to even bring healthy foods into h er home, since there are physical barriers present that make carrying heavy groceries up a steep incline, especially with an infected leg wound, and a heart condition, impossible.The practitioner would need to provide the appropriate support needed to help make food choices that Miss Leona would be able to prepare, and enjoy. 6. Describe two taboo views that African Americans may have roughly pregnancy. Taboos are practices that if done, are likely to result in harm coming to the mother, unborn child, or both in the case of pregnancy-related taboos. There are a few pregnancy taboos regarding photographs that African Americans might have, according to the text. There is the belief that pregnant women should not take photographs, or they may cause the baby to be stillborn.Another cultural belief that may be shared is that a pregnant woman should not have their picture taken, because it captures their soul. There is also a taboo that involves the dangers of purchasing clothing or othe r items for an unborn baby. This is said to be bad luck for the baby and mother. Baby items are purchased after the child is born to avoid causing harm to or misfortune to the mother or her child. Pregnancy taboos views may be held by African Americans, in addition to other prescriptive and restrictive practices regarding childbearing.The realities of pregnancy are related to many factors. African American women usually respond to pregnancy in the same manner as other ethnic groups, based on their satisfaction with self, economic status, and career goals (Purnell, 2003, p. 48). 7. Identify and discuss views that Dorothy and her parents may have about mental illness and medication. In the case study, Dorothy is a 42 year old African American woman living with her parents who takes medication for a diagnosed of bipolar disorder. African Americans have variations in drug metabolism, particularly of psychotropic medications.They show higher blood levels, experience a faster therapeutic response, and are at more risk for drug side effects. Health care professional personal beliefs may about a specific ethnic group may account of how the drug is prescribed, and African Americans are at a higher risk of misdiagnosis for psychiatric disorders and ,therefore, may be treated inappropriately with drugs (Purnell, 2003, p. 48). The Evans family may have seen these medications misused in family members or friends, and may have some detrimental view regarding the treatment of mentalillness. In African American culture, there is a tendency to use medication on an as needed basis when an illness improves, and the person feels better, she may stop taking the medication. This practice could be very detrimental to medication therapy for bipolar disorder. If Dorothy and her family engage in this practice, she would most likely not have had good responses to medication. Dorothy and her family may therefore have a negative view of the medications effectiveness.African Americans oft en attach a stigma to mental illness, especially since there tends to be a high frequency of misdiagnosis of psychiatric disorders, leading to a distrust of mental health professionals (Purnell, 2003, p. 50). The Evans are a religious family, and they may have prayed and attempted to achieve spiritual healing for Dorothy. When the illness persisted, they may have judged Dorothy as not being faithful enough to receiving healing. With these cultural factors coming in to play, there is a high hazard that Dorothys illness presents a great challenge within the Evans family.References Advocate Health Systems (2007). How to make your family recipes heart healthy. Advocate Magazine 3(24). Retrieved 6/12/07, from http//www. advocatehealth. com/trin/info/library/ham/win00/trin1. html? fitness Morgan, K. (2005). West Virginias Appalachian culture. West Virginias Appalachian Music and Literature Resources. Retrieved 6/12/07, from http//www. ferrum. edu/applit/studyg/West/htm/wvcultur. htm . Pu rnell, L. (2003). Transcultural health care a culturally competent approach. Philadelphia F. A. Davis Company.

Starbucks Logistics Essay Example for Free

Starbucks Logistics EssayTo help Starbucks on its way to successfully reach the supply chain goals they redefined and changed their dispersal and warehousing strategy too.In March 2011 Starbucks signed the agreement with Green Mountain Coffee Roasters to distribute Starbucks deep brown and teas for Keurig single-serving systems (2) Green Mountain Coffee Roasters owns the biggest distribution network for the single-serving systems in due north America and Starbucks was able to increase their stock prices significantly after singing this deal. Also, leaving out the old partner Kraft Foods out of the distribution of its coffee in supermarkets and grocery shops Starbucks can generate some surplus income and invest it into furrow (3). Another example of changes in distribution is the intention of Starbucks to capitalize the distribution channels of Tevanna and continue to open more stores in malls tweaking the model (4).The relationship with their long-standing 3 PL partner compa ny OHL has been redefined after Mr.Schultz returned as chief executive and throw been improved enormously implementing day-today and peer-to-peer relationship instead of having a relationship within arm reach as per Greg Javor, Vce President of Global Logistics for Starbucks Coffee Company (1). The relationships were leveraged to the diagnose levels between the partners and allowed OHL to react quickly and in a more effective way to a changing and Starbucks strategy. Also, the improved communication helped to introduce more design into the business and now Starbucks and OHL use voice picking technologies, finger scanning technology and introduced the EDI labeling in their warehousing system.All this definitely allow Starbuck to secure a reliable supply of high-quality products and reduce the cost using all the opportunities, technologies and re-defining their distribution and warehousing objectives. Doing it in a smart way and using effectively desegregation of various activitie s for reaching the goals the company not only solves the current problems while recovering after the recession hit but builds a new capabilities and opportunities for expanding business for the future.(1) http//www.youtube.com/watch?v=aa_C7-W_r18(2) http//www.nytimes.com/2011/03/13/business/13coffee.html?pagewanted=1_r=0ref=starbuckscorporation(3) http//www.gezabottlik.com/310/07_Project20120Report_billyjun_Starbucks20Coffee20Report.pdf(4) http//dealbook.nytimes.com/2012/11/14/starbucks-to-buy-teavana-for-620-million/?ref=starbuckscorporation

Sniffing Attacks Prevention and Detection Techniques

Sniffing Attacks Pr til nowtion and Detection TechniquesSecurity in Wired/Wireless NetworksSniffing Attacks Prevention and Detection Techniques in Wired and Wireless Local Area Networks (LAN) crochetDuring the past era, Information Technology made a revolution in RD. No doubt Internet live ons an essential backbone for any sciences and research nowadays. then security measure threats and data banks attacks turn out to be a phenomenon. Thus, granting protection to much(prenominal) crucial information becomes a high demand. While reviewing the latest studies in this subject atomic number 18a, thither atomic number 18 strong signs that attacking information w arhouse is the hot topic nowadays.More everyplace, preventing attacks to transmission toytrol communications protocol/IP communicates and what atomic number 18 the nigh efficient proficiencys to protect it, is the most aspireed research area for security experts. For showcase, what so c alled the Man-in-the-Middle att ack MiM and defense of inspection and repair DoS are just some shipway of vulnerable attacks to TCP/IP communicates, exploitation some tools available free on the internet. They are sniffing the data vocation or causing service denial.In our research, we evaluated the most famous security solutions and classifying them fit to their efficiency against detecting or preventing the types of hollo Resolution communications protocol ARP Spoofing attacks. Based of the surprising experimental results in the security lab, we proposed an optimal algorithm to enhance their energyKeywordsSniffing Attacks, ARP squirrel away inebriety, Man-in-the-Middle MiM, Intrusion Prevention Detection technique IPS/IDS, Denial of Service DoSCHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION1.1 OverviewAs we mentioned in the abstract section that this research is focal point on the internal attack within the local area network LAN which is forming the major and critical attacks which the network resources are exposed to acco rding to new studies conducted in the Information Security domain1. We impart demonstrate two major attacks affecting the Internet users the local network The MiM attack2 (Man-in-the-Middle Attack) and DoS (Denial-of-Service). There are many tools and softwares wide available and for free of cost which cornerstone carry out many attacks over the network and violate the privacy of users, such tools homogeneous Sniffers3 monitors data travelling over a network, it either kindle be of authorized or unauthorized function. It was started initially as a Network Analyzer to help the administrator to perform health check and maintain the network activities however it is apply today to redirect the avocation and access confidential files.Traditionally, research in the area of information and communication security foc employ on helping developers of organizations prevent security vulnerabilities in the systems they produce, before the systems are released to customers. the majority of studies on network security, are considering only the external attacks. Internal as well as external are of the outmost importance when it comes to information security, but need to be complemented with more depth research for developing detection and prevention mechanisms, and studying internal threats.The research plan we followed in our work presented here are as followsa. Address Resolution Protocol ARPb. ARP Spoofing attack Poisoningc. ARP Spoofing establish MiM DoS attacksd. Experimentse. Optimal ARP Spoofing detection algorithmf. Results analysisg. Conclusion1.1.1 What is an ARPThe Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) 4 is used by computers to constitute network promisees (IP) to physical savoir-fairees or what is normally refer to Media Access Control addresses ( mack).It translates IP addresses to Ethernet macintosh addresses and classified as a Networking protocol used to find legions address given its IP address. Some network expert consider it as a DataLink La yer protocol because it only operates on the local area network or point-to-point link that a entertain is connected to5. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is documented in RFC 8261 and later it was adopted by other(a) media, such as FDDI6. For more details active Internet Protocols Suits see appendix 11.1.2 How it works The ARP Process RARPAs we stated formerly from an computer architecture perspective, ARP is a layer 3 function (Network), however in a programming perspective ARP is considered as layer 2 (Datalink) because it calls the LAN data like layer code. RARP is stand for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol, and it is a network protocol used to resolve a mackintosh address to the corresponding network layer address, i.e. RARP is used to make up a MAC address to an IP address exactly the reverse function of the ARP request/ say.1.1.3 Types of ARP/RARP protocol messagesThere are four types of ARP massages that are sent by an ARP protocola. ARP requestb. ARP replyc. R ARP requestd. RARP replyAs we just said in the definition, ARP is used to map network address (IP) to physical address (MAC) and when a host need to communicate with a nonher host it needs to know its MAC address. Here comes ARP protocol and works by dispeling a packet (ARP-Request) for any hosts connected over the Ethernet network. The ARP packet contains the IP address of the sender and the IP address of the target it is interested in communicating with. See (1.2) and (1.3)However, the target host, identifying that the IP address in the ARP request packet is belong to itself, so it returns an answer back in a unicast reply (ARP-Reply) and the host which initiated the ARP request catches the IP,MAC pair and keeps it in ARP pile up storehouse. Keeping the host reply in cache will minimize the ARP traffic in the LAN. See (1.4)So simply when the ARP request is broadcasted to all PCs on the network it asks the following question Is x.x.x.x is your IP address?, if Yes send back your MAC address.Then all PC checks if its IP address is matching the one in ARP request and sends ARP reply with its MAC address.But the repeated ARP requests e peculiar(prenominal)ly when it is broadcasted every time a MAC address is required creates a high traffic in the network, and hence the operational Systems keep copy of the ARP replies in the computers cache memory and update it frequently with any new pair, this will help in reducing the ARP requests number9.By the way ARP spoofing technique which we are going to twaddle about in the next chapter is occurring when forged ARP replies is created and sent to the source computer who initiated the ARP request formerly and updated its ARP cache with belie information. We will know afterward this genial of exploitation is called poisoning the ARP cache.The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol RARP is broadcasting a RARP request packet with the target MAC address which will be received by all hosts in the Ethernet network. Host w hich its MAC address is matching the one in the RARP request will reply with its IP address in the RARP reply packet and sends it to the host which initiated the RARP request.Afterward the IP address which consists of 32 bit will be converted to 48 bit Ethernet address, by the suitable encapsulation mechanism. This is the common practice for the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), which is documented in RFC 826 51.ARP defines the exchanges between network interfaces connected to an Ethernet media segment in night club to map an IP address to a link layer address on demand. Link layer addresses are hardware addresses (although they are not unchallengeable) on Ethernet card game where the IP addresses are logical addresses assigned to machines attached to the Ethernet. Accordingly a Datalink layer address is known by other names, i.e. Ethernet Addresses, Media Access Control (MAC) Addresses, and even Hardware Addresses. However, the correct shape from the kernels perspective is Link Layer Address because this address can be changed via command line tools 50.1.1.4 ARP and RARP message formatsThe ARP packet consists of Ethernet question and Data packet the Ethernet header is divided to 6 bytes for the destination address 6 bytes for source address 2 bytes for the frame type in hex (e.g. 0806 for ARP 8035 for RARP)Where, the data packet structure of ARP packet is encapsulated and the information that every part holds are demonstrated in the following table10Table 1.1 ARP and RARP packet structure+Bits 0 7Bits 8 15Bits 16 310Hardware type (HTYPE)Protocol type (PTYPE)32Hardware space (HLEN)Protocol length(PLEN)Operation (OPER)64Source hardware address MAC (SHA) ( number one 32 bits)96Source hardware address (last 16 bits)Source protocol address (first 16 bits)128Sender protocol address (last 16 bits)Destination hardware address (first 16 bits)160Destination hardware address (THA) (last 32 bits)192Destination protocol address (TPA) Hardware address type (2 byt es). 1=Ethernet Protocol address type ( 2 bytes). 0800H (hexadecimal) = IP address Operation type 1 = ARP request, 2=ARP reply, 3=RARP request, 4=RARP reply etc.1.1.5 TCP Standard Ports/ServicesThe table below is showing, a list of services and ports used by TCP protocolTable 1.2 TCP Ports and ServicesPort KeywordsDescription20FTP-DATAFile Transfer Default Data21FTPFile Transfer Control23TELNETTelNet Telecommunication network 25SMTPSimple Mail Transfer37TIMETime42NAMESERVERHost digit Server43NICNAMEWho Is53DOMAINDomain Name Server79FINGERFinger80HTTPWWW110POP3Post Office Protocol Version 3111SUNRPCSUN Remote modus operandi CallCHAPTER 2LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 Background2.1.1 ARP Spoofing ground on MiM and DoS attacksARP spoofing is also called ARP poison routing (ARP) or ARP cache poisoning or ARP stash Corrupting. It is a method of attacking an Ethernet local area network by updating the target ARP cache with a forged ARP request and reply packets9. This will try to change the ta rget MAC address by another one which the attacker has a control on it. Updating ARP cache with a fake launching value is so called ARP Poisoning.What is sniffer? or (The Network Analyzer) it is a software or a hardware which log the traffic over a network and captures the data packets, then decodes the packets and analyzes the content. Kindly notice in our research that the following terms Spoofing, Poisoning and Cache Corrupting are referring to the same term .Furthermore, since ARP is considered as a trusted protocol within the network and is not designed to deal with venomed activities in the network, so attackers found unusual ways to illegitimately penetrate into the network causing harmful costs.These harms or costs can be much worse when the attacker tries to impersonate another user, performs Man-in-the-Middle attacks (MiM), or even causes Denial of Service (DoS) on a Server or even the whole Network11.P.S. Spoof means hoax or imitation. Thanks to the British comedian Art hur Roberts (1852-1933), who introduced the word spoof to the world in the 19th century. He invented a game and called it Spoof, it incorporates tricks nonsense12.Why it is so difficult to detect sniffers? The attack is fundamentally performed in the passive mode, which means it is hidden and working in the backend so the standard user will not recognize such attacks. Besides it is not easily for user to detect the sniffing since this kind of attacks is generating usual traffic over the network. The other point is the fact that sniffers can be familiarly linked to an sprightly intrusion attacks. While talking about the requirement and resources sniffing is only requiring a standard machine connected over the network with normal hardware configurations and there is no need to special requirements or high performance. Threat is always seen as external and many researches shows that most of the attacks are from the internal resources according to the recent Global security surveys i n 200913, another study 14 shows that internal threat is incredible increased to more than 80% of the security breaches, where external attacks showed about 15% with internal help and 5% just from pure outsiders.2.1.2 How ARP caches are updated?Let us recall how the communication happens on an Ethernet LAN. As we early stated that all communications in layer 2 is based on the MAC address, so for any PC wants to talk to a target on the network is has to address it to the targets MAC address.If a source computer tries to communicate with another computer in TCP/IP based network it has to translate the targets IP into the corresponding physical address (MAC) and here where we use an ARP protocol. The translation happens by request/reply ARP broadcast workes. When the ARP requester receives the reply, it catches the pair and keep it in its ARP cache memory so it wont ask for it over again15.2.1.3 ARP Cache Poisoning (Spoofing) AttackIt is the process of corrupting an ARP cache with fa ke IP/MAC entries. It also used to perform some other attacks, for instance Man-in-the-Middle (MiM) attack, also known as (MITM) Denial of Service (DoS) attack (refer to section 3.2)As we discussed earlier if an entry is live in the ARP cache, then it can be updated or corrupted using ARP reply or ARP request.But what about if the entry is NOT exist in the ARP cache? The answer is ARP request packets always work to corrupt any run System ARP cache whether the entry exists or not in the ARP cache. On the other hand, for hackers, ARP requests allow them to corrupt always the target ARP cachesA recent study16 showed by experiment the impact of the ARP request update on different Operating Systems. An experiment revealed which OS with dynamic entries in the ARP cache was vulnerable to the ARP cache poisoning attack.2.1 17, an evaluation for the impact of the ARP request update on different Operating Systems, e.g. Windows XP Professional, Windows 2000, 2003 Server, Linux 2.x, and Solar is 5.9Table 2.1 ARP request impact on various OSWindowsXPWindows2000Windows2003 ServerLinux 2.4Linux 2.6Free BSD4.11SunOSSolaris5.9Entry exist inARP cache?YesNoYesNoYesNoYesNoYesNoYesNoYesNoARP requestARP replyXXXX = ARP request or reply message is true by the system allows the update or creation of MAC / IP entryX = ARP request or reply message is rejected by the system doest NOT allow update creation MAC/IP entryThe results of the experiment indicated that1. If the entry does not exist in the ARP cache, all well-tried OSs, except Windows 2000, Free BSD 4.11 and SunOS Solaris 5.9, will not allow the creation of a new entry by an ARP reply message.2. If the entry does not exist in the ARP cache, all tested OSs allow the creation of a new entry by an ARP request message.3. However, if the entry existed already in the ARP cache, all tested OSs allowed its update by an ARP reply (even in the absence of an ARP request) or request message.Therefore, when using ARP reply messages, th e ARP cache poisoning attack becomes difficult to realize against most OSs. However, it system indeed possible when using ARP request messages. In conclusion, most common OSs are still vulnerable to the ARP cache poisoning attack. Malicious users can first use ARP request messages to create fake IP/MAC entries in the ARP caches of their target hosts. Then, fake ARP reply massages are used to maintain the existence of fake IP/MAC entries in the ARP caches of the target hosts.2.1.4 Example of ARP Cache SpoofingAs mentioned above the ARP Spoofing process is in the main to corrupt the ARP cache of any host over the network with fake IP/MAC pair in order to perform some serious attacks such as Man-in-the-Middle attack MiM or Denial-of-Service DoS. In the following demonstration we will show the two different steps before and after the ARP cache poisoning is taking place, in the (2.1) and (2.2).2.1.4.1 ARP Cache Spoofing (before ARP corruption)In (2.1) its clear that the ARP cache table is legitimate for all hosts connected to the network via a switch, where we can see that every IP-address is mapped to a valid and corresponding MAC-address for that host. For instance in ARP cache table of the host A the IP-address of the host B is mapped with the MAC-address of the host B. And the same case is employ on host C.On the other hand, in ARP cache table of the host B for example the IP-address of the host A is mapped with the MAC-address of the host A. And the same case is applied on host C. Let us see what changes may occur after the cache poisoning2.1.4.2 ARP Cache Spoofing (after corruption)In (2.2) Host C is the malicious host in this scenario. It corrupted the ARP cache tables for both hosts A and B. The ARP cache table for host A is becoming illegitimate now, where we can see that every IP-address is mapped to an invalid and not the corresponding MAC-address for that host. For instance in ARP cache table of the host A the IP-address of the host B is mapped wit h the MAC-address of the host C. And the same case is applied on host B.In this case whenever the host A want to communicate with host B, the TCP/IP traffic will be guided to pass by the malicious host C rather of B..So what..?Hackers use the process of generating such abnormal ARP request packets to corrupt the ARP cache for real hosts and perform different attacks over the network (e.g. MiM or DoS).2.1.5 Gratuitous ARPThis process is concerned about IP address duplication attack. Such a situation is due to the case when a host sends an ARP request to look for its MAC. This may occur when the host reboots, or once changing its Ethernet Number or the IP address17.Gratuitous ARP is doing the following tasksi. Finding IP address conflicts in the Network by verificatory if there is another host that has the same IP address and displaying this message duplicate IP address sent from Ethernet address abcdef .ii. If a host changing its MAC or IP address by sending an ARP request, then i t will world power to update the ARP cache on the Network with the new MAC/IP addressP.S. ARP Gratuitous is mainly influence old Operation Systems, such as Windows XP SP1 or older.2.1.6 MiM attackThe man-in-the-middle attack, (abbreviated as MiM, or sometimes MITM18) comes from the Packet-Sniffing19. MiM doesnt listen to all the packets that walk along the network as the Sniffer works, however it interfere with one or more hosts in the network and starts snooping between them. Such hosts been listened by a MiM are commonly called victims. A victim can be a normal host (e.g. PC or Notebook), gateway or even a routerAn attacker who is mainly spying between two or more victims is establishing a autonomous connections between the victims and convey messages between them as if they are directly connected. And hence we call him Man-in-the-Middle.So far MiM is just listening to the traffic transitory through two victims. Although this kind of outrage is illegitimate and can reach sensiti ve information like passwords, e-mail messages, encryption secernatesetc. however it become worse and worse when he tries to go further than and inject false and fake packets and convey them between the deceived victims.According to20 MiM attack is classified as an active attack, because the hacker manages the traffic in the network between the source and the destinations.MiM is very famous approach used by hackers nowadays and uses the ARP protocol in order to attack the ARP-Cache tables and hence control the targets21. By poisoning the ARP tables for all hosts in the network for example will instruct the hosts to reroute the traffic to the Attacker host instead of the Gateway, where he starts interfering between any two or more victims.One more thing needs to be mentioned that the attacker has to forward all the interrupted packets to the original destination, so that the synchronized connection will remain and doesnt time outIn the above ARP spoofing occurs when sending a fake and spoofed ARP reply to the target, i.e. if the Attacker has an IP 10.10.1.10 and wants to sniff the traffic between the Victim who has an IP 10.10.1.20 and the Gateway which has an IP 10.10.1.254 it simply sends fake ARP replies to associate its own MAC address with the Gateway IP 10.10.1.254. The Victim then is trapped and starts sending all the packets intended to the Gateway to the Attacker address as in the above illustration.2.1.7 Denial of Service DoSDoS attacks occurring when any suspicious host over the network performs ARP cache poisoning and receives any packet designated to the original target to the suspicious host and cause a block in the connection between the host and the target which is being attacked. Kindly notice that more details regarding Denial of Service DoS will be discussed in section (3.2) in chapter No. 3.2.2 Evaluation Of Common Intrusion Detection Systems And Intrusion Prevention Systems2.2.1 ARP cache poisoning and MiM attacksThe ARP cache spoofing at tack and the Man-in-the-Middle attack are usually maintained and controlled by humans22. There are many solutions proposed in solving this type of security threat, based on different mechanisms or protocols at different OSI model layers such as Application layer, Network layer and Data link layer16.2.2.2 Detection of ARP cache poisoning attackArpwatch23 and Snort24 are tools that are able to detect ARP cache poisoning attack by checking each packet contents. To do that, these tools monitor Ethernet activities and keep databases of Ethernet MAC/IP address pairs. If an analyzed packet has an Ethernet MAC/IP address pair, which does not appear in their databases, then the system administrator is alerted. Arpwatch and Snort are sensors that need to have access to monitoring ports on the switches (usually, known under the name of SPAN port, or mirroring port) or be placed in locations where they can see all the network traffic. Therefore, it would be more interesting and efficient to det ect any ARP anomalies without the use of any access privilege or special ports on the switches. This is the case since substantial performance impact can be caused when port mirroring is in effect. This strategy makes ARP spoofing detection based on sniffing not instead viable on switched LAN networks16.2.2.3 Packets sniffing and MiM attacksOn shared broadcast LAN networks, such as hubbed and wireless networks, packets sniffing can easily be achieved with minimal efforts. However, a switched LAN environment presents a different problem with few available techniques for sniffing. The first technique consists of connecting to an administrative port on the Switch and setting it to broadcast mode. The administrative port will now receive all traffic. A second technique is summarized by sending a large number of spoofed packets, which is usually an ARP packet (Address Resolution Protocol) to the Switch so it fails to open and sends all packets to all ports. However, a recent study25 sho ws that only old switches models are vulnerable to this attack. Another technique, which is based on the MiM attack, is to tell target hosts on the LAN network to use an attackers MAC address in order to get to any other host. This technique is based on the generation of malicious ARP traffic. The attacker host takes a copy of the received traffic then forwards it to the correct host.Today, security devices, such IDSs (An intrusion detection system) 26 and IPSs (An Intrusion Prevention System)27, have become a standard component of security solutions used to protect computing assets from hostile attacks. IDSs are able to detect many types of attacks, such as denial of service (DoS) and IP spoofing attacks. But, their ability and reliability to detect certain attacks are still questionable, notably the MiM attack. Prevention mechanisms, such as S-ARP28 and O-ARP29 lack efficient implementation on real systems and for a performance evaluation2.2.4 Prevention mechanisms based on see A RP protocolsA number of cryptographic protocols have targeted issues related to ARP security. For example, S-ARP28 is a popular ARP security protocol that uses asymmetric cryptography utilizing digitally signed ARP replies. At the receiving end, an entry is updated if and only if the signatures are correctly verified. S-ARP is considerably slow as can be deduced from the results presented in28. Furthermore, S-ARP can not prevent against cache poisoning attacks.a. O-ARP techniqueO-ARP29 is a secure ARP technique that is similar to S-ARP with regards to its message format and key management. However, it uses cryptography only when necessary and tries to avoid it when ever possible. The authors in29 claim that O-ARP is much faster than S-ARP on the average, and can be used as security measure to prevent against cache poisoning attacks. Meanwhile, the authors did not implement O-ARP in any operating system to obtain measurements for its performance.In30 the authors proposed another Secu re Address Resolution Protocol. In this protocol, a secure horde shares secret keys with each host on a subnet. The server maintains a database of MAC/IP address mappings, which is updated periodically through communication with each host. All ARP requests and replies occur between a host and the server, and replies are evidence using the shared pair keys. The main drawback of this technique is congestion at the server, which constitutes a single point of failure in the network.b. Ticket-based Address Resolution ProtocolTicket-based Address Resolution Protocol (TARP)31 is another secure ARP protocol. TARP is built as an extension to ARP. TARP implements security by distributing centrally issued secure MAC/IP address mapping attestations through existing ARP messages. These attestations, called tickets are given to clients as they join the network and are subsequently distributed through existing ARP messages. hostile other popular ARP-based solutions, the costs per resolution are reduced to one public key validation per request/reply pair in the finish off case. However, networks implementing TARP are vulnerable to two types of attacks-active host impersonation, and DoS through ticket flooding. In addition, TARP does not include support for dynamic environments, mainly when hosts IP addresses changes dynamically.c. Cryptographic TechniqueAnother approach was presented in32, where the authors proposed a cryptographic technique. The technique is based on the combination of digital signatures and one time passwords based on hash chains.d. ARPSec protocolMoreover, in33, the ARPSec protocol was proposed as an ARP security extension that intends to solve the security weaknesses of the ARP protocol. ARPSec provides an anti-replay protection and documentation using a secret key shared only by the source and the destination of the packet computed by an authenticated Diffie-Hellman exchange. Unfortunately, no real-time implementation or performance evaluations on demonstrable network systems were performed to quantify their efficiency.At the network layer, the IPSec34 protocol can be used to facilitate the confidentiality, integrity, and authentication of information communicated using the IP protocol. IPSec proposes solutions for many security issues within the IP protocol, but does not prevent any malicious users from manipulating ARP packets, at the Data link layer, or redirecting target network IP traffic to other destinations. IPSec guaranties the confidentiality and integrity of the redirected IP traffic, but cannot prevent malicious users from causing DoS attacks on target hosts.2.2.5 Protection mechanisms at the Application layerRecently, some(prenominal) security protection mechanisms have been proposed at the Application layer. However, such mechanisms might not be effective against certain attacks at the lower layers, mainly at the Data Link layer. For example, in35, the authors argued that most deployed user authentication mecha nisms fail to provide protection against the MiM attack, even when they run on top of the SSL/TLS protocol or other similar protocols. The authors then introduced the notion of SSL/TLS session-aware user authentication, and elaborated on possibilities to implement it. Another example is the Interlock protocol, proposed in36, which was later shown to be vulnerable to attacks when used for authentication37. For compound security at the Application layer, in38 a new proposed technique called Delayed Password Disclosure (DPD) was shown to complement a password-based authentication and key exchange protocol to protect against a special form of the MiM attack, the doppelganger window attack. On the other hand, in39 the authors proposed the notion of a Password Protection Module (PPM) that provides protection against the MiM attack for certain situations. PPMs are effective only if they take into account network-related information, such as IP addresses and URLs. This makes PPMs very diff icult to deploy and manage. Additional protection mechanisms were proposed in40 to secure tunneled authentication protocols against the MiM attack. In most cases, prevention mechanisms at the Application layer guarantee the confidentiality and integrity of the traffic exchanged but do not prevent malicious users from redirecting network traffic to their hosts.2.2.6 External protection mechanismsSeveral attempts have been made to address the above security issues through methods external to the ARP protocol. For example, it has been proposed that hosts can statically be cond41 . This would observe a huge administrative overhead and is largely intractable for dynamic environments. Conversely, the port security42 features available in recent switches restrict the use of physical ports to con MAC addresses. If an attacker forges its own MAC address and includes an additional frame header containing malicious mapping, poisoning a victims ARP cache can still be possible. This approach on ly prevents certain kinds of MAC hijacking, but does nothing to prevent MiM attack. Hence, it is only a partial and in many ways limited solution